Fine Mist Research Articles

An experimental investigation of the dynamic response of a liquid metal jet subjected to nanosecond laser ablation

The dynamic response of a micrometer-sized gallium–indium (Ga-In) jet in nitrogen subjected to intense Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Nd: YAG) laser pulses with energy ranging from 0.35 to 5.0 mJ per pulse is investigated experimentally. The rapid deformation of the jet was visualized using timed-delayed stroboscopic shadowgraphy. The laser pulse disrupts the jet to form a gap, and the length of the gap grows according to a logarithm relationship with respect to the dimensionless time normalized a characteristic timescale τ, which is determined by the pulse energy Ep. The ablation impulse bends and flattens the jet into a thin curved film that resembles a wind-blown sail. The area of the sail increases with t6/5Ep13/15, where t is time. The sail eventually breaks up into fine mist. Additionally, we found that the laser-blast-induced initial bending velocity of the jet could be predicted using the semi-empirical laser-ablated propulsion model for an In-Sn droplet of tens of micrometers.

Joint OH-PLIF and Mie scattering imaging of enhanced water mist suppression of buoyant fires

This study presents the first near-field measurements of interactions between reaction layers and water mist droplets suppressing a buoyant turbulent diffusion flame that is representative of a fire. Joint Mie scattering and OH-PLIF are employed at a high repetition rate of 400 Hz to image the droplet field and OH structure, which are deemed here to approximate the high-temperature reaction zone. Compressed natural gas (CNG) buoyant diffusion flames are stabilised on the Sydney Turbulent Buoyant Fire Burner, which is surrounded by a low-velocity air co-flow that is seeded with fine water mist droplets (d32 ∼ 50 µm). The water mist is doped with varying concentrations of metal alkali salts (NaHCO3, KHCO3) that release radical scavenging molecules, providing enhanced suppression capabilities through chemical inhibition in addition to the quenching effect from the water droplets. The spray boundary condition across the wind tunnel exit plane is quantified using Phase Doppler Interferometry. Flame extinction limits are measured by defining the critical condition at which the flame destabilises and lifts off the burner exit plane. A stability map is developed to quantify suppression efficacy in terms of the water mist flow rate and inhibitor concentration. Joint Mie-OH images of selected cases at varying extinction levels show that the addition of inhibitor introduces frequent breakages in the OH layers, marking regions of local extinction and reignition. Large mass fractions of inhibitor in the water, which, once evaporated, produces excess salt crystals in the local extinction zones that causes streaks of salt clouds that line both the lean and rich side of the flame. The chemical scavenging effects of the OH radical by NaHCO3 and KHCO3 is quantified by evaluating the reduction of the mean OH fluorescence signal in the flame at varying locations. Probability density functions for the OH area characterise local extinction in the flame due to the radical scavengers. The order of OH radical depletion and localised extinction in the flame due to the water mist follows: KHCO3 > NaHCO3 > H2O.

Experimental investigation on the cooling effect of fully submerged fine water mist on lithium-ion batteries in confined space

Due to insufficient heat dissipation, the severity of thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries in confined space tends to get aggravated which may lead to significant loss. Therefore, effective countermeasures are urgently needed. This study aims to investigate its cooling control capability of fine water mist on suppressing the thermal runaway induced by overheating in confined space, and determine its key interfering factors. The results show that the occurrence of thermal runaway accelerated accompany by a more intense thermal process in confined space, and the average mass loss of lithium-ion batteries at 100 % state of charge increases by 14.6 %. Fine water mist exhibited an excellent control effect on thermal runaway even in confined space as long as it was released before the critical temperature of 172 °C with concentration around 0.9 kg m−3. In addition, even if the suppression fails, the thermal runaway triggering can still be delayed for around 25 s and its severity be mitigated. This work may be helpful for further analysis of cooling effectiveness of thermal runaway control with fine water mist in confined space, as well as provide guidance for practical applications in such real cases.

Numerical simulation study of the mechanism of hydrogen explosion inhibition by fine water mist containing NaOH

The effect of NaOH-containing fine water mist on hydrogen explosion flames is investigated utilizing numerical simulations using a multi-step model of the chemical reaction mechanism. The suppression effect of hydrogen explosion fine water mist in different pipes is studied. The chemical agent NaOH is introduced into the water mist, and the inhibition mechanism is studied from a microscopic perspective. The results show that the addition of fine water mist can effectively reduce the flame temperature and that the fine water mist completely evaporates and absorbs heat in the preheating zone. The addition of NaOH can improve the inhibition effect of ultra-fine water mist on hydrogen explosion, which is the result of the joint action of physical inhibition and chemical inhibition. The mole fraction curve shows that NaOH delays the reaction process of hydrogen explosion by trapping high-energy free radicals.

Exergy and energy analysis of a novel solar powered fog desalination system

A novel system that applied fogging as a desalination technique was recently published, which could be considered a further development of the humidification-dehumidification desalination system (HDH), that provides an advantage through its ability to desalinate high salinity levels. This involves spraying hot saline water at high pressure vertically upwards, creating a mist instead of large water droplets. This increases productivity since the fine mist facilitates evaporation and the low-saline mist can go upwards more than the large high-salinity droplets. However, experiments showed that this methodology, in terms of productivity, performance and cost, was between other technologies. It was noted that the performance of this system peaked at ~39 %. Therefore, in this paper, an exergy analysis of the system is presented to determine the location of the highest exergy destruction and also highlight its comparative feasibility. The results indicated that the exergetic efficiency of the system reached 17.3 % while the main source of irreversibility is the fogging process itself (~75 %). Additionally, increasing the water temperature from 33 to 76 °C increased the exergetic efficiency of the fogger from 4 % to 20 %. Therefore, the authors recommend using a combination of humidification and atomization via nozzles of larger orifices with different spraying angles.

Advanced Manufacturing of Unique Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Electrode and Electrolyte Microstructures through Aerosol Deposition

Development of various additive manufacturing technologies over the years has given an opportunity for highly customizable and unique structures to be fabricated with applications towards several different industries. For ceramic manufacturing, techniques such as direct ink writing (DIW), stereolithography (SLA), and fused deposition modeling (FDM) have been utilized to construct very complex structures. These technologies have also been developed for use towards solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) where they have been utilized to manufacture components greater than 200 µm in thickness. Some components of the SOFC such as the electrodes, electrolyte, and barrier layer are much smaller and consist of thicknesses from 1 µm to 50 µm. Along with the reduced thickness, the electrodes of a SOFC are often comprised of a composite material where the previously mentioned technologies struggle with achieving both the required high resolution and compositional change needed to manufacture these specific components. This project’s goal is to develop an additive manufacturing technique that suits both requirements for manufacturing the electrodes, electrolyte, and barrier layer of a SOFC.The technology that has been developed to complete the manufacturing of highly customizable electrodes along with the electrolyte and barrier layer is Aerosol Deposition. The Aerosol Deposition system contains several different elements that lead to consistently tailored microstructures for the various 3-D printed parts including the use of syringe pumps, an ultrasonic atomizing nozzle from Sonaer Ultrasonics, an infrared heater, and a flexible automation system. The ultrasonic atomizing nozzle is used to convert a stream of liquid into a fine mist via mechanical vibrations. The liquid that is supplied to our ultrasonic atomizing nozzle is low solids loading solvent-based suspension containing approximately 1 - 5 vol% of solids and polymer pore formers. Suspensions are supplied to the nozzle by mechanical pressure provided from a programmable syringe pump. This technology accompanied with a flexible automation system gives the potential for highly customizable and repeatable microstructures that can aid in evaluating variables associated with the different components of the SOFC.Development of the additive manufacturing system to fabricate the anode functional layer, electrolyte, barrier layer, and cathode active and current collector layers through an automated process have been studied. For the electrodes, a microstructure that contains approximately 30% - 40% porosity is suitable to enhance the electrochemical performance of the electrode. Sintering temperatures for the electrodes typically range from 1000 °C to 1300 °C which can typically densify the microstructure and restrict the amount of porosity present. To implement porosity within the microstructure poly(methyl methacrylate) was incorporated into electrode suspensions due to their ability to diffuse out of the electrode microstructure at temperatures of ~450 °C. The electrical and mechanical properties of the separate components have been characterized accordingly utilizing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Acknowledgements: This work was performed in support of the US Department of Energy’s Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Program. The authors would like to acknowledge the WVU Shared Research Facilities (SRF) and thank Dr. Thomas Kalapos from Leidos Research Support Team for his assistance.

Application of mist to fingermark detection: Misting with high-boiling-point liquid containing p-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde and cyanoacrylate.

In order to detect latent fingerprints that could be damaged by liquid or powder reagents, non-destructive processes such as gaseous reagents have been developed. In this report, we propose the use of fine mist generated when hot vapor of high-boiling-point liquids is rapidly cooled by surrounding air for fingermark detection. Octyl acetate (OA), 2-phenoxyethanol (2PE), and methyl decanoate (MD) were found to efficiently produce mist when heated to 230°C. By combining these liquids with p-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (DMAC) and cyanoacrylate (CN), our team demonstrated effective fluorescence staining of cyano-treated fingermarks using DMAC/OA misting or DMAC/2PE misting, and one-step fluorescence detection of latent fingermarks without cyanoacrylate treatment using DMAC/OA/CN misting or DMAC/MD/CN misting. Fingermark fluorescence was efficiently observed by excitation with a blue LED light (max. wavelength 470 nm) equipped with an interference filter and passing through a 520 nm long-pass filter. We successfully obtained fluorescent images from fingermarks on several substrate materials using the developed misting method.

Numerical Simulation of 35kV Oil-Immersed Transformer Fire and Extinguishing Effects of High-Pressure Fine Water Mist

Numerical Simulation of 35kV Oil-Immersed Transformer Fire and Extinguishing Effects of High-Pressure Fine Water Mist

Nasal cast deposition for xylo- and oxymetazoline formulations using two different nasal pumps

Background: Allergic rhinitis, rhinosinusitis, and upper respiratory tract infections, including the common cold, are caused by inflammation of nasal cavity areas. A key symptom is nasal congestion, which can be relieved with nasal spray medications. A key goal in developing a nasal spray medication delivery device for the relief of nasal congestion is delivering a fine mist to the inflamed areas while providing user comfort and convenience. Methodology: Using a Koken nasal cast model, we studied the deposition patterns of 2 xylometazoline and 1 oxymetazoline for- mulations with 2 different nasal pumps, the currently marketed Freepod and the investigational laterally actuated device. Effects of nasal tip orientation and breathing were investigated. Additionally, the degree of xylometazoline and oxymetazoline dripping down the back of the cast was assessed. Results: The largest coverage overall was observed with the xylometazoline formulation with the laterally actuated pump and without breath simulation. The laterally actuated pump used at a 30° angle resulted in deposition to the inferior, middle, and superior turbinates of the nasal cast, with less variability than the Freepod. Drippage at the back of the cast was observed with the Freepod device but not with the laterally actuated device. Conclusions: Using a nasal cast model, the laterally actuated pump used at a 30° angle produced a full mist covering areas inflamed with the common cold, allergic rhinitis, and rhinosinusitis with no dripping at the back of the cast, an improvement compared with the Freepod pump. In vivo studies are needed to confirm nasal cast results.

Investigation of cooling control effect of fine water mist on lithium-ion battery thermal runaway

ABSTRACT The lithium-ion battery (LIB) thermal runaway (TR) has been a major safety problem, and effective countermeasure to suppress the TR becomes indispensable. Owing to the outstanding cooling capacity, the water mist presents efficient suppression effect on TR, but the comprehensive understanding on the cooling mechanisms remains unclear. In this work, the fine water mist (FWM) that is driven by the air flow has been applied to suppress the TR, and the cooling control processes under various thermal hazard conditions have been comprehensively analyzed. Results show that TR can be efficiently suppressed with the FWM applied before the critical temperature, which is identified as 252.5 ± 2.5°C. The average surface cooling rate increases from 1.04 to 1.22°Cs−1 with the increasing flow rate, and the total heat dissipation maintains approximately at 2.10 kJ, once the flow rate exceeds 0.2 mLs−1. It is identified that the most efficient cooling process can be obtained under the duration of 80 s. The influence of the flow rate and duration of the FWM on the cooling effect has been discussed to comprehensive reveal the control mechanism, and the excellent cooling control effect of the FWM flow has been verified.

FABRICATION OF QUADCOPTER FOR AGRICULTURAL SPRAYING

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are being used more frequently for agricultural spraying as a result of their effectiveness and precision. This project involved building a quadcopter without sensors, cameras, or GPS for agricultural spraying. The quadcopter was created to rapidly and effectively cover a sizable amount of agricultural land, while also minimizing the usage of pesticides and the impact on the environment. The quadcopter's frame, which was made of lightweight materials to give strength and durability while minimizing the aircraft's overall weight, was used in its construction. The quadcopter's frame was made to accommodate four brushless motors, each of which had a propeller to give lift and movement. Four electronic speed controllers (ESCs) were used to control the motors' rotational speed and direction. The high-capacity lithium-polymer (LiPo) battery used by the quadcopter has sufficient power to run the motors and spraying system continuously. A tank, a pump that pressurized the liquid, and a nozzle that released the pressurized liquid over the crops as a fine mist made up the spraying system. A KK 2.1.5 circuit board served as the foundation for the flight control system, which was wired to the battery, four ESCs, and other components. The quadcopter's circuit board was configured to retain its position and altitude while flying steadily. Additionally, it provided buttons and an LCD panel for the user to use to change flying characteristics including the throttle, pitch, and roll. A handheld radio transmitter that interacted with a quadcopter receiver was used to control the aircraft.

Influence of Firefighting Intervention on Fire Spread Characteristics in Ship Engine Room

The purpose of this paper is to investigate and evaluate the ship engine room fire spreading characteristics based on the effect of firefighting interventions. The large eddy simulation (LES) and theoretical models are employed to simulate a fire scene in the engine room. The fire spreading characteristics and the mechanism of the use of a fine water mist are obtained by varying the ventilation conditions and parameters of the water sprinkler. The results show that the reason why a pool fire can be more easily extinguished as the spray speed increases is because the water mist with a higher spray speed has a larger spray area. Meanwhile, the temperature in the engine room would drop more rapidly with the increasing spray area due to the higher evaporation rate. Furthermore, the arrangement of the ventilation conditions had an obvious effect on the fire spreading characteristics, as the depletion of the combustion medium affects the combustion situation.

Inhibitory effects of water mist containing alkali metal salts on hydrogen–natural gas diffusion flames

Fire extinguishing technologies of fine water mist containing additives have good application prospects. Additives that are efficient, nontoxic, nonpolluting, widely used, economical and reliable provide a reference for the application and promotion of fine water mist fire extinguishing systems containing alkali metal salts. In this paper, six potential alkali metal salt additives were selected: potassium carbonate (K2CO3), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), potassium oxalate (K2C2O4·H2O), potassium acetate (CH3COOK), potassium chloride (KCl), and potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3); these additives were delivered into the fires as mists of their solutions at certain concentrations, the extinguishing time was recorded, and the minimum fire extinguishing concentration (MEC) of fine water mist containing alkali metal salt was tested by using a cup burner experimental apparatus. In addition, different types of alkali metal salts were compared to determine the anions and cations with better fire suppression performance levels. The suppression efficiencies of different ratios of additive packages for hydrogen-doped natural gas diffusion flames were studied to determine a specific ratio of additive packages. Based on the results of the experiment, in contrast to the pure water mist, the suppression efficiency of alkali metal salt greatly improved. The cation extinguishing ability was K+>Na+, and CO32- and CH3COO− were better than other anions in alkali metal salts. An efficient compound additive was identified as 1.5% K2CO3 + 0.5% CH3COOK. With increasing hydrogen addition, the MEC of fine water mist with additives increased.

Enhanced Optimal Parameter-Based Nebulizer Design for Flow Analysis of Fluticasone Propionate.

A jet nebulizer sprays a fine mist or aerosol directly into the lungs to reduce inflammation, expand airways, and make breathing easier for respiratory patients. Asthma, COPD, emphysema, and cystic fibrosis are treated with jet nebulizers. They are chosen over other nebulizers for their shorter treatment time and wider medication compatibility. For mechanically ventilated patients, jet nebulizers humidify oxygen to provide bronchodilators, antibiotics, and other respiratory medications. Additionally, they treat pneumonia, bronchitis, and other lung infections. Aerosol therapy requires medical jet nebulizers. However, experiment setup is time-consuming and challenging to enhance smaller droplet output. The study is aimed at enhancing the nebulizer and process parameters using numerical simulation and comparing the results to experimental data from the Malvern Spraytec™ laser diffraction system. This numerical model improves nebulization knowledge and predicts process parameters that affect output. Ansys Fluent was used to analyze a Creo-designed jet nebulizer solid model. The Spraytec™ experimental method was utilized to characterize fluticasone propionate's aerosol output and build the best nebulizer. Laser diffraction and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis measured the nebulizer aerosol output. Comparing particle size data between 2 and 5μm. The results are similar, with a difference of 4.20%. Taguchi optimization found the optimal process parameter, and a conformation test enhanced the process parameter. The nebulizer generates 8.57% more fluticasone propionate at optimal particle size. The optimized nebulizer generates aerosols reliably and speeds up patient recovery.

Comparative study of dry machining with MQL assisted soybean oil in turning operation of AISI 304 steel

In this study soybean oil is selected in a view of the better biodegradability of this fluid so that it uses in future can be enhanced in machining operations, for that we have examined how the surface roughness along with cutting force of AISI 304L steel respond to varying cutting speeds, feed rates, and depths of cut and to optimize them for that MQL (minimum quantity lubrication) sometimes also called near to dry machining is used for generating highly pressurized fine mist particles and these are helpful in lowering the requirement of cutting forces and surface roughness during machining operations compared to dry machining. To minimize surface roughness and cutting forces, RSM was used for optimization by the box-Behnken method using MINITAB software. MQL based turning gives better results when compared with dry machining with the better reduction in maximum cutting force. It was found that soybean provides 7.15% reduction in cutting force (Fc) and 9.6% in case of surface roughness when compared to dry machining.

放射空調オフィス・クールスポットへのドライミスト適用効果に関する研究

In recent years, a part of concerning human body cooling R&D work has focused on fine mist spraying using water vaporization heat. It is much more energy-saving to cool a human body with fine mist than to form an cool spot with an air conditioner. This research aims at clarifying the shortening effect of the “restoring time” from after-exercise sensation to original sensation by installing fine mist area with the cool spot in the radiation cooling/heating office. In this study, we investigated whether repeated exposure to air currents after fine mist exposure would shorten restoring time.

Study on the Minimum Fire-Extinguishing Concentration of Several Commonly Used Extinguishing Agents to Suppress Pyrolysis Gas of Red Pine Wood.

The suppression of forest wood burning has been one of the important research directions in the field of solid combustible fire safety. The process of forest wood flame propagation is a coupled process of solid-phase pyrolysis and gas-phase combustion chemical reactions; therefore, as long as the solid-phase pyrolysis or gas-phase combustion can be suppressed, the forest wood flame propagation can be suppressed and an important contribution can be made to the subsequent suppression of forest wood fires. Previous studies have focused on the inhibition of solid-phase pyrolysis of forest wood, so this paper examines the effectiveness of several common fire suppressants for suppressing forest wood gas-phase flames, starting with the inhibition of forest wood gas-phase combustion. In this paper, for the convenience of the study, we narrowed the scope of the research object to the previous research ideas for gas fires, established a simplified small-scale flame model for forest wood fire suppression, took red pine wood as the research object, analyzed the pyrolysis gas components after high-temperature pyrolysis, and constructed a Cup burner suitable for N2, CO2, fine water mist, and NH4H2PO4 powder to extinguish the pyrolysis gas flame of red pine wood, respectively. The experimental system, together with the 9306 fogging system and the improved powder delivery control system, shows the process of extinguishing fuel flames such as red pine pyrolysis gas at 350, 450, and 550 °C with various types of fire-extinguishing agents on this device. It was found that the flame morphology was related to the composition of the gas and the type of extinguishing agent. At the same time, NH4H2PO4 powder appeared to burn above the cup mouth when pyrolysis gas interacted with it at 450 °C, but this phenomenon did not occur when other extinguishing agents interacted with it and only appeared when pyrolysis gas interacted with it at 450 °C, so it was judged that this phenomenon was related to the CO2 content of the gas component and the type of extinguishing agent. The study found that the four extinguishing agents extinguish red pine pyrolysis gas flame MEC value. There's a big difference. The worst performance is N2. Compared with N2 suppression of red pine pyrolysis gas flame, CO2 suppression effectiveness is 60% higher, but compared to the suppression effectiveness of fine water mist and far away, the suppression effectiveness of fine water mist is much higher than the suppression effectiveness of CO2. However, the difference in effectiveness between fine water mist and NH4H2PO4 powder is almost double. In summary, in the suppression of red pine gas-phase flame, four kinds of fire-extinguishing agents are ranked as follows: N2 < CO2 < fine water mist < NH4H2PO4 powder. Finally, the suppression mechanism of each type of extinguishing agent was analyzed. The study of this paper can provide some data to support the extinguishing of open fires in forest fires or suppressing the rate of forest fire spread.

Experimental Verification of Mist Cooling Effect in Front of Air-Conditioning Condenser Unit, Open Space, and Bus Stop

Mist spraying is a technique for locally lowering air temperature by spraying fine mist into the air and using the latent heat of evaporation immediately after spraying. This study focuses on the conditions under which mist spraying contributes to the increase in sensible heat release from the human body, using the ratio of air temperature decrease and humidity increase in the space where mist is sprayed. From the measurement results in front of the air-conditioning condenser unit, humidity increased by about 10 g/kg(DA), while air temperature decreased by about 10 °C. From the measurement results in an open space in a park, air temperature decreased by about 0.5 to 1 °C within 2 m of the mist spray and humidity increased by about 0.5 to 1 g/kg(DA) at the height of the mist spray, regardless of the distance from the mist spray. From the measurement results at semi-open bus stops, air temperature decreased slightly to 1 °C and humidity increased slightly to 1 g/kg(DA) under low-wind conditions. Unfortunately, the measured results of air temperature decrease in relation to humidity increase, which the human body perceives as cooler, were not available.

Numerical Simulation of Fire Suppression in Stilted Wooden Buildings with Fine Water Mist Based on FDS

In this paper, to reflect a real fire combustion situation of stilted buildings with a typical wooden structure, we used FDS numerical simulation software to study the suppression effect of a fine-water-mist fire-extinguishing system under different working conditions. The influences of different mist droplet diameters, spray flows, and nozzle densities on the temperature change in the combustion area were analyzed and compared. The particle sizes of fog droplets exhibited a significant impact, indicating that the smaller the particle size, the faster the vaporization rate and the better the cooling effect. The cooling effect was better when the particle size was 150 μm or less when compared to the particle sizes of 200 and 300 μm. As the spray flow rate and nozzle density were increased, the fire field temperature decreased, and the cooling effect was enhanced, optimal at a water-mist flow rate of 8 L/min. Therefore, given the possible working conditions, the spray flow rate and the nozzle density should be high, while a suitable droplet size should be selected to achieve the best fire-extinguishing effect.

The synergistic antibacterial activity of ozone and surfactant mists.

The microbiological safety of medical equipment and general surfaces is paramount to both the well-being of patients and the public. The application of ozone (a potent oxidant) has been recognised and implemented for this purpose, globally. However, it has primarily been utilised in the gaseous and aqueous forms. In this study, we investigate the potency of fine ozone mists and evaluate the synergistic effect when combined with cationic, anionic and non-ionic surfactants (dodecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide - DTAB, sodium dodecyl sulfate - SDS, alkyl polyglycoside - APG) as well as polyethylene glycol (PEG). Ozone mist is generated via a nebuliser (equipped with a compressed gas stream) and the piezoelectric method; whereas fabric substrates contaminated with Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus are utilised in this study. Contamination levels on the fabric swatches are evaluated using agar dipslides. Compared to gaseous ozonation and aqueous ozonation (via nanobubble generation), the produced ozone mists showed significantly inferior antimicrobial properties for the tested conditions (6 ppm, 5-15 min). However, the hybrid mist-based application of 'ozone + surfactants' and 'ozone + PEG' showed considerable improvements compared to their independent applications (ozone mist only and surfactant mist only). The 'ozone + DTAB' mist had the highest activity, with better results observed with the micron-mist nebuliser than the piezoelectric transducer. We propose a likely mechanism for this synergistic performance (micellar encapsulation) and demonstrate the necessity for continued developments of novel decontamination technologies.