Final Grain Research Articles

Phase-field simulation of dynamic recrystallization in friction stir weld nugget zone of dissimilar Al/Mg alloys

In friction stir welding (FSW) of dissimilar Al/Mg alloys, the materials on both sides in weld nugget zone (WNZ) undergo extremely uneven high temperature and plastic deformation, resulting in a great difference in dynamic recrystallization (DRX) which determines the weld microstructure evolution. In this study, the multi-phase field model coupled with the dislocation density model is developed to conduct numerical simulation of DRX behavior in WNZ of Al/Mg alloys FSW with Mg placed on advancing side. It is found that during welding process, the grain size at the checking points in WNZ always decreases rapidly at first and then increases slowly to a stable value, while the dislocation density always increases first and then decreases to a stable level. After welding, the final grain size on Al's side is lower than that on Mg's side. As the welding speed decreases, the DRX becomes more intense, and the dislocation density curve fluctuates more frequently. The calculated final values of average grain size at both Al's and Mg's sides are in good agreement with the experimentally measured ones.

PKM-Perancangan Automatic Temperatur Control Menggunakan Pd Pada Mesin Pengering Gabah Tipe Rotary

During the Community Service (PKM) activities carried out by students and lecturers in Opo-opo Village, Krejengan District, Probolinggo Regency, to assist farmers in the grain drying process. Where the simple drying process generally takes 3 days. To overcome the problem of manual drying, the PKM will design an automatic temperature control using pd on a rotary type grain drying machine. The test results were carried out 3 times, including the first test with 8 kg of grain with a fire setting, a temperature of 57 ℃ was obtained, and the required drying time was 50 minutes, so that the final weight was obtained lower than the initial weight due to a decrease in water content with the result the final grain weight was 7.23 kg and there was a decrease in grain weight of 1.37 kg. For the two grain tests of 7 kg with the fire setting, a temperature of 57 ℃ was obtained, and the drying time required was 30 minutes, so that the final weight was obtained which was lower than the initial weight due to a decrease in water content with the final grain weight being 6.73 kg and there was a decrease in grain weight of 1.87 kg. And for the three grains of 6.15 kg with the fire setting, a temperature of 69 ℃ was obtained, and the required drying time was 20 minutes, so that the final weight was obtained which was lower than the initial weight due to a decrease in water content with the final grain weight being 6. 40 Kg and there was a decrease in grain weight of 1.75 Kg.

Effects of Seed Quality and Hybrid Type on Maize Germination and Yield in Hungary

After wheat and rice, maize is one of the most significant cereal crops worldwide. However, high-quality seed materials are prerequisites for stable yields, and low-quality maize seeds significantly contribute to low yields and deteriorate over time. Therefore, the present investigation aims to investigate the effects of seed quality and hybrid types on maize germination by emphasizing seed viability and vigor and their impact on maize crops’ overall performance and productivity. The study was separately conducted in the laboratory and on a field experiment plot under the Department of Crop Production, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, in spring 2022. Nine parental lines, six hybrids, and a controlled hybrid were tested in this study. The studies were laid out using a complete randomization design (CRD) and a randomized complete block design (RCBD) in the laboratory and in the field. The results of the study showed that there was a statistically significant difference between genotypes and number of days and their interaction in seed vigor. The parental lines showed better performance in terms of germination percentage and radicle elongation, whereas single-cross hybrids (SC) produced better plumule length. The radicle and plumule length also expanded significantly as incubation days increased. In field evaluations, as expected, hybrid lines produced better performance than parental lines, and SC hybrids were more prevalent than the other hybrids. In addition, the number of rows per ear, number of kernels per ear, 1000-kernel weight, and ear weight directly affected the final grain yield. However, further research is needed on new approaches that can assist researchers in advancing their work by considering biotic and abiotic factors to address seed-quality issues and enhance yield production.

Ultrafast high‐temperature sintering of ZrB2

AbstractUltrafast high‐temperature sintering (UHS) is a joule heating method with an extremely high heating rate (∼103–104°C/min). In this work, commercial ZrB2 powders were rapidly densified by UHS to >90% relative density within 60 s in vacuum without pressure. Bulk density improved from 75% to 93% of relative density by increasing the sintering duration from 10 to 60 s. The final grain size increases from 2.7 ± 1.1 to 19.0 ± 8.4 μm when the sintering time increased from 10 to 60 s. X‐ray diffraction and energy‐dispersive spectroscopy show crystalline phase and compositional uniformity in ZrB2 after UHS.

Impact of Rice–Wheat Straw Incorporation and Varying Nitrogen Fertilizer Rates on Soil Physicochemical Properties and Wheat Grain Yield

Straw return (SR) is crucial for the comprehensive and efficient utilization of resources within agroecosystems; however, its impact on soils and wheat grain yield in the Jianghan Plain of the Yangtze River Basin, Hubei Province of China, is not fully known. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to assess the impact of returning rice–wheat straw, along with different nitrogen (N) fertilizer applications, on soil physicochemical properties and wheat grain yield. The Yangmai 23 wheat variety was cultivated in the Experimental Farms of Yangtze University in the Yangtze River Basin, with three rates of rice SR (0, 50 and 100%) and four N fertilizer rates (0, 33.3, 70 and 100%) with 180 kg/ha urea. The integrated use of SR- and N-fertilizer rates significantly altered soil nitrogen, nitrate, ammonium, phosphorus, potassium, pH and moisture within the 20 cm depth before the seeding, jointing and maturation stages of the wheat. The grain yields of 6408 ± 110 − 8290.00 ± 298 and 4726 ± 62 − 6758.00 ± 196 kg/ha were obtained in the 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 seasons, respectively. The studied soil physicochemical properties either before seeding, or at the jointing and maturation stages had a significant effect on final grain yield. These results underscore the combined effect of SR- and N-fertilizer application to improve wheat productivity in the Yangtze River Basin. However, further studies are ongoing to assess the impact of these treatments on the soil microbial community, as well as on wheat grain quality.

Synergistic effect of well/over-tempered hierarchical martensitic structure and carbides (M23C6 and MX) on austenite growth in 9Cr steel

To clarify the synergistic effect of well/over-tempered hierarchical martensitic structure and carbides (M23C6 and MX) on austenite growth, the austenite growth during step-heat austenitization for a selected 9Cr steel was investigated by dilatometry, multi-scale characterization and cellular automaton simulation. The austenite grain inherits the geometrical characteristics of the hierarchical martensite substructure to a significant extent through covariant and free growth. In particular, the initially heterogeneous grains with non-uniform martensitic substructure can easily produce mixed and heterogeneous grains. Step isothermal heating under AC1 can promote the evolution of martensitic structure to recrystallized ferrite and recovered equiaxed substructure, associated with coarsening of M23C6 and precipitation of MC. Apart from the recrystallized ferrite promoting the growth of equiaxed austenite grains, the recovered approximate equiaxed substructure decorated with coarse M23C6 and a large amount of MX can promote the subsequent development of fine spherical austenite grains by reducing the abnormal austenite growth and increasing the resistance to interfacial migration. The synergistic effect of the well/over tempered martensitic hierarchical structure and the carbides (M23C6, MX) is critical to the final austenite grain distribution. A window of critical temperature values for step heating austenitization to generate homogeneous austenite grain growth was established by exploiting the inheritance of the equiaxed substructure and reasonably reducing abnormal growth.

Flow stress and dynamic recrystallization behavior and modeling of GH4738 superalloy during hot compression

GH4738 superalloy is a key material for gas turbine engines, yet its relatively poor thermoplasticity and narrow temperature range for hot working deteriorate grain structure uniformity and thereafter service performance. Employing hot compression experiments and finite element analysis (FEA), the present study examined the thermoplasticity of the GH4738 alloy and proposed a fast approach to establishing its dynamic recrystallization (DRX) model. The hot working conditions were considered in the 1000–1160 °C temperature range under strain rates of 2–26 s−1 up to a true compressive strain of 0.69. Friction- and temperature-corrected stress-strain curves were obtained, based on which the efficiency of power dissipation and constitutive equations were constructed. It reveals that DRX is the dominant softening mechanism in the GH4738 alloy, where the sensitivity of flow softening positively correlates with lower temperatures and higher strain rates. The appropriate hot working condition for the alloy is temperatures around 1040–1080 °C and a strain rate larger than 8 s−1. The final grain sizes (d) and fractions of DRX (Xdyn) were minimized using the stochastic gradient descent algorithm based on 120 sets of data within the framework of the Avrami equation. It is shown that the formulated model and its integration into the FEA not only yield satisfactory agreement with the experiment but effectively avoid the complexity involved in the traditional method. The study provides key inputs for predicting the flow behavior and grain structure of the GH4738 superalloy, which shall be critical for process development and optimization of industrial manufacturing processes.

Solidification crack elimination in TIG welding of Al7075: Experimental investigation and modified RDG modelling

Although solidification crack susceptibility modelling has been a point of interest for many years in fusion welding of aluminum alloys, the underlying mechanism of solidification crack elimination is not yet fully understood. To contribute in closing this knowledge gap, the present study investigates and proposes a new modified Rappaz-Drezet-Gremaud (RDG) physical model in autogenous and heterogeneous TIG welding of Al7075 sheets. The core novelty of the new model is that it includes the shrinkage strain rate, which allows to better capture the effects of capillary pressure, coherency point, as well as final dendrite or grain size in the fusion zone. In agreement with the experimental results and previous models, the new model shows that the defining mechanism of eliminating solidification cracks in heterogeneous joints is the capacity of nanoparticles to initiate heterogeneous grain nucleation, altering the fusion zone grain morphology from dendritic to fine equiaxed, with only little impact of the resulting grain size. This leads to two main effects causing reduced solidification crack susceptibility: (1) a reduction in coherency point by about 15 % from 902 K to 879 K, which reduces strain accumulation on the coherent solid network; (2) a considerable increase in capillary pressure across the entire mushy zone, allowing to maintain the total pressure at void/liquid interfaces in the positive range, which prevents the growth of potentially formed voids between grains at any temperature during solidification. In contrast, dendrite widths below 68 μm are required to prevent solidification cracks in autogenous joints without TiC nanoparticles, indicating a greater role of grain refinement. Overall, the proposed model highlights the more determinant role of the temperature-dependent solidification shrinkage strain rate in solidification crack susceptibility as it is an order of magnitude greater compared to the temperature-independent thermal contraction strain rate that has been the main or sole focus of previous models.

Modification of canola cultivation conditions in a waterlogging-susceptible subtropical environment

Waterlogging directly interferes with the production capacity of agricultural crops in response to the morphophysiological changes caused to plants. Since the cultivation of poorly drained soils is traditionally avoided, this study aimed to evaluate the possibility of expanding canola cultivation into waterlogged soils using soil surface drainage and different row spacings in lowland areas of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Treatments consisted of the presence and absence of surface drains at 0.25 m depth and row spacings of 0.17, 0.34, 0.51, and 0.68 m arranged in two-factorial randomized blocks with four replications, in 2018 and 2019. In this study, growth traits, yield components, and the final grain yield of canola were evaluated. The increase in lateral branching in canola plants was found to be directly related to waterlogging and negatively affected yield. The use of drains positively impacted the number of pods per plant, seeds per pod, the 1,000 seeds weight, and grain yield. The more intense waterlogging conditions in 2018 resulted in the highest grain yield and superior production traits were obtained with row spacings between 0.41 and 0.48 m. In the absence of waterlogging, the 0.17 m row spacing was more productive. Canola cultivation can occur in waterlogged soils in the presence of surface drainage and at row spacings ranging from 0.40 to 0.50 m.

The International Heat Stress Genotype Experiment for modeling wheat response to heat: field experiments and AgMIP-Wheat multi-model simulations

The data set contains a portion of the International Heat Stress Genotype Experiment (IHSGE) data used in the AgMIP-Wheat project to analyze the uncertainty of 30 wheat crop models and quantify the impact of heat on global wheat yield productivity. It includes two spring wheat cultivars grown during two consecutive winter cropping cycles at hot, irrigated, and low latitude sites in Mexico (Ciudad Obregon and Tlaltizapan), Egypt (Aswan), India (Dharwar), the Sudan (Wad Medani), and Bangladesh (Dinajpur). Experiments in Mexico included normal (November-December) and late (January-March) sowing dates. Data include local daily weather data, soil characteristics and initial soil conditions, crop measurements (anthesis and maturity dates, anthesis and final total above ground biomass, final grain yields and yields components), and cultivar information. Simulations include both daily in-season and end-of-season results from 30 wheat models. All data are available via DOI 10.7910/DVN/CJJBSR.

Poultry litter and cover crops influence the agronomic performance and grain yield of wheat

The use of poultry litter as a source of nitrogen (N) and the decomposition of ground cover plants can be an alternative and N management strategy in the wheat crop, in succession. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of isolated and/or intercropped cultivation of ground cover plants in autumn/winter and the use of poultry litter on some plant parameters and on the final yield of wheat grains. The experimental design was randomized blocks, in split plots, with three replications. The treatments in the plots were composed of isolated coverings Avena strigosa Schreb., Raphanus sativus L. and intercropping of A. strigosa + R. sativus and fallow as a control. In the subplots, the N managements in the wheat crop with 100% of the N recommendation via poultry litter, 100% of the N via mineral (urea), 50% via poultry litter + 50% mineral and the control, without N application. The management of nitrogen fertilization and the cover crops altered the yield components of the wheat crop. The use of poultry litter increased the final grain yield, being an alternative as a partial replacement, when associated with urea, or total N. Isolated crops R. sativus and A. strigosa + R. sativus intercropping significantly influenced agronomic performance and final grain yield.

Influence of intermediate annealing temperature on the microstructure and texture of double stage cold rolled non-grain oriented electrical steel

Non-grain oriented electrical steels (NGOES) are commonly used as stacked laminations of rotors and stators in electrical vehicles. In order to achieve the best performance and efficiency for the motor, NGOES need the best possible magnetic properties of high polarization and low magnetic losses. Two important aspects influencing these magnetic properties are the grain size and the crystallographic texture of the material. Grain size and texture of the finished steel strongly depend on the production route and the processing parameters. Another important aspect besides the magnetic properties is the mechanical strength, which is needed to withstand the centrifugal forces, accounted with high rotational speed in high frequency applications. In this work a special processing route for the production of 3.25% Si NGOES sample material has been studied, using laboratory cold rolling and annealing facilities. Compared to the classical processing route of cold rolling and annealing, this alternative method involves two cold rolling steps with an intermediate annealing treatment between the first and second rolling step and a final annealing treatment after the second rolling sequence. The samples were heat treated at different intermediate and final annealing temperatures, influencing the recrystallization and grain growth behavior and thus the resulting microstructure and texture. Finished samples were examined using magnetic testing, tensile testing, light imaging microscopy and by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The results indicate a correlation between the two annealing treatments (intermediate and final) and the final grain size of the steel samples. Furthermore the highly grain size dependent magnetic losses are influenced. EBSD-data was used to interpret the texture and to calculate a parameter describing the magnetic quality of the texture. The results show a strong improvement of magnetically favorable texture components along with increasing intermediate annealing temperatures, enabling significantly better magnetic properties.

Meta-Dynamic Recrystallization in the Ni-Based Superalloy Haynes 282

Forging on an industrial scale often involves slow, size-limited cooling rates or high temperature hold times between, or after, deformation. This enables the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) initiated during forging to further progress under static conditions, a phenomenon called meta-dynamic recrystallization (mDRX). As mDRX will influence the final grain size, and thus properties, it is critical to understand and control it during processing. Here, we study the mDRX evolution in Ni-based superalloy Haynes 282 during post-deformation hold times of up to 120 s at 1080 °C after partial DRX. We find that mDRX is the dominating mechanisms responsible for the microstructure evolution the hold time. The very rapid mDRX kinetics in the initial stages suggest that quench delays (the time between the end of the deformation and the onset of the quenching intended to arrest the microstructure evolution) must be kept well below 1 s in order to allow reliable conclusions to be drawn from post-deformation microstructure investigations. A larger prior strain (larger DRX fraction) leads to faster mDRX kinetics and a larger final grain size. Larger strains leads to earlier impingement of the growing grains, which, in combination with smaller remaining deformed regions into which the grains can grow, limits the maximum size of the mDRX grains. We also note a close correlation between static recovery and stress relaxation during the hold time, whereas no such correlation between mDRX and stress relaxation can be observed.

Understanding and control of Zener pinning via phase field and ensemble learning

Zener pinning refers to the dispersion of fine particles which influences grain size distribution via movement of grain boundaries in a polycrystalline material. Grain size distribution in polycrystals has a significant impact on their properties including physical, chemical, mechanical, and optical to name a few. We explore the use of Phase-field modeling and machine-learning techniques to understand and improve the control of grain size distribution via Zener pinning in polycrystalline materials. We develop a machine learning model that determines the relative importance of various parameters to exercise microstructure control via Zener pinning. Our workflow combines high-throughput phase-field simulations and machine learning to address the computational bottlenecks associated with large-scale simulations as well as identify features necessary for microstructure control in polycrystals. A random forest (RF) regression model was developed to predict grain sizes based on five Phase-field model parameters, achieving an average prediction error of 0.72 nm for the training data and 1.44 nm for the test data. The importance of the input parameters is analyzed using the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) approach which reveals that diffusivity, volume fraction, and particle diameter are the most important parameters in determining the final grain size. These findings will allow us to select the best second-phase particles, optimize grain size distributions and thus design microstructures with the desired properties. The developed method is a highly versatile and generalizable approach that can be used to assess the combined effects of individual features in the presence of multiple variables.

A high-yielding traits experiment for modeling potential production of wheat: field experiments and AgMIP-Wheat multi-model simulations

Grain production must increase by 60% in the next four decades to keep up with the expected population growth and food demand. A significant part of this increase must come from the improvement of staple crop grain yield potential. Crop growth simulation models combined with field experiments and crop physiology are powerful tools to quantify the impact of traits and trait combinations on grain yield potential which helps to guide breeding towards the most effective traits and trait combinations for future wheat crosses. The dataset reported here was created to analyze the value of physiological traits identified by the International Wheat Yield Partnership (IWYP) to improve wheat potential in high-yielding environments. This dataset consists of 11 growing seasons at three high-yielding locations in Buenos Aires (Argentina), Ciudad Obregon (Mexico), and Valdivia (Chile) with the spring wheat cultivar Bacanora and a high-yielding genotype selected from a doubled haploid (DH) population developed from the cross between the Bacanora and Weebil cultivars from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). This dataset was used in the Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) Wheat Phase 4 to evaluate crop model performance when simulating high-yielding physiological traits and to determine the potential production of wheat using an ensemble of 29 wheat crop models. The field trials were managed for non-stress conditions with full irrigation, fertilizer application, and without biotic stress. Data include local daily weather, soil characteristics and initial soil conditions, cultivar information, and crop measurements (anthesis and maturity dates, total above-ground biomass, final grain yield, yield components, and photosynthetically active radiation interception). Simulations include both daily in-season and end-of-season results for 25 crop variables simulated by 29 wheat crop models.

Evaluating Critical Nitrogen Dilution Curves for Assessing Maize Nitrogen Status across the US Midwest

Plant N concentration (PNC) has been commonly used to guide farmers in assessing maize (Zea mays L.) N status and making in-season N fertilization decisions. However, PNC varies based on the development stage. Therefore, a relationship between biomass and N concentration is needed (i.e., critical N dilution curve; CNDC) to better understand when plants are N deficient. A few CNDCs have been developed and used for plant N status diagnoses but have not been tested in the US Midwest. The objective of this study was to evaluate under highly diverse soil and weather conditions in the US Midwest the performance of CNDCs developed in France and China for assessing maize N status. Maize N rate response trials were conducted across eight US Midwest states over three years. This analysis utilized plant and soil measurements at V9 and VT development stages and final grain yield. Results showed that the French CNDC (y = 34.0x−0.37, where y is critical PNC, and x is aboveground biomass) was better with a 91% N status classification accuracy compared to only 62% with the Chinese CNDC (y = 36.5x−0.48). The N nutrition index (NNI), which is the quotient of the measured PNC and the calculated critical N concentration (Nc) based on the French CNDC was significantly related to soil nitrate-N content (R2 = 0.38–0.56). Relative grain yield on average reached a plateau at NNI values of 1.36 at V9 and 1.21 at VT but for individual sites ranging from 0.80 to 1.41 at V9 and from 0.62 to 1.75 at VT. The NNI threshold values or ranges optimal for crop biomass production may not be optimal for grain yield production. It is concluded that the CNDC developed in France is suitable as a general diagnostic tool for assessing maize N status in US Midwest. However, the threshold values of NNI for diagnosing maize N status and guiding N applications vary significantly across the region, making it challenging to guide specific on-farm N management. More studies are needed to determine how to effectively use CNDC to make in-season N recommendations in the US Midwest.

Biochar application promotes crops yield through regulating root development and the community structure of root endophytic fungi in wheat-maize rotation

Biochar incorporation into soil has been found to benefit crop yield. However, the effects of biochar application on crop root growth and morphology and root endophytic fungi in different crop growth stages remain obscure. Here, a field experiment was established with various biochar rates [0 (control), 4.5 t ha−1 (BC4.5), 9 t ha−1 (BC9)] to examine the effect of biochar application on root development and community structure of root endophytic fungi in a wheat-maize rotation system under semi-arid climate on alluvial soil. The results showed that in BC9 the total root length of maize and shoot nutrient accumulation in the flowering stage were comparable with the control and BC4.5. However, in the grain-filling stage, the root length remained high in BC9, but it was reduced by 21–34% in the control compared with the flowering period, suggesting biochar delayed root senescence. Similarly, the higher specific root length was found in BC9 compared with the control at the grain-filling stage. Biochar also altered the relative abundance and diversity of root endophytic fungi. Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes dominated the root fungal community, accounting for 57–85% of the total endophytes. Biochar changed the core species in the community structure from Basidiomycetes to Ascomycetes and promoted shoot nutrient accumulation and final grain yield of wheat and maize. Thus, biochar maybe increases crop yield by increasing root length, delaying root senescence, and altering the community structure of root endophytic fungi.

Kinetics of Grain Size Reduction in Minerals Undergoing Ball Milling

AbstractThis work focuses on the grain size reduction induced by ball milling in individual minerals and binary mixtures containing quartz and a softer mineral. All the investigated minerals and mineral mixtures undergo a significant monotonic grain size decrease upon mechanical processing. The rate at which the process occurs in individual minerals decreases with the hardness of the mineral phase. Hardness is shown to play a crucial role also in the case of mineral mixtures. The final grain size attainable by the softer mineral as well as the rate of the grain size reduction process depend, indeed, on the amount of quartz in the mixture. A kinetic model allows rationalizing the observed behaviour based on the intensity of mechanical stresses generated during individual impacts.

Improving wheat seedling quality through deep ploughing and soil compaction at sowing in lime concretion black soil.

The straw incorporation in lime concretion black soil compromises the emergence and quality of winter wheat seedlings in Huaibei Plain, China, lowering the potential of wheat productivity. To overcome the disadvantage, a two-year field experiment was conducted in 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effects of different tillage modes on seedling emergence and subsequent seedling growth, and final grain yield (GY) in winter wheat. The modes are rotary tillage with compaction after sowing (RCT), rotary tillage after deep ploughing (PT) and rotary tillage after deep ploughing with compaction after sowing (PCT), with the traditional rotary tillage (RT) method as the control. Compared to RT, greater soil moisture content (SMC) at the seedling stage was observed in deep ploughing or compaction treatment, and the highest SMC was achieved in PCT; the time of reaching the maximum number of seedlings was 1 d sooner in RCT or PT, and 3 d in PCT; the seedling number in RCT, PT and PCT was significantly increased by 32.6%, 34.5% and 61.5% respectively. The population size, shoot and root growth of winter wheat in ploughing mode was significantly enhanced than that of rotary treatment at the over-wintering stage; compared to no compaction after sowing, plant growth in compaction treatments was significantly promoted with greater plant population size and height of seedlings. At harvest, GY in RCT, PT and PCT was significantly improved by 5.87%, 10.8% and 16.4%, respectively, compared to RT and the highest GY was achieved in PCT by up to 8, 350.1 kg ha-1 due to the increased spike number. In conclusion, the seedling quality in the straw incorporation practice was improved through rotary after deep ploughing and compaction after sowing for lime concretion black soil in Huaibei Plain, China or a similar soil type.

Impacts of Temperature on Wheat Productivity in Rice-Wheat Cropping System of Punjab, Pakistan

From 2011-12 to 2020-21, an experiment was conducted at the Adaptive Research Farm Sheikhupura, Punjab, Pakistan to test the adaptability of indigenous wheat cultivars in the rice-wheat cropping system of Pakistan. The selection of cultivars was based on their popularity among farmers and their ability to produce high yield. Each year, the experiment was set up using a Randomized Complete Block Design, with wheat cultivars as treatments randomized in plots measuring 3.15 m × 9.6 m. All experimental units were treated the same way in terms of agronomic practices, plant protection, harvesting, and post-harvesting techniques. Data was collected pertaining to number of tillers (m-2), 1000-grain weight (g) and final grain yield (t ha-1) for each cultivar, as well as the mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures for each crop season recorded. The data was then analyzed statistically. It was found that temperature had a negative impact on the number of tillers, 1000-grain weight, and grain yield of wheat over the long term. Furthermore, the performance of wheat cultivars varied based on changes in temperature throughout the entire study period.