Fifty-five Years Research Articles

Reviewed by: Creek Internationalism in an Age of Revolution, 1763–1818 by James L. Hill Daniel J. Burge (bio) Creek Internationalism in an Age of Revolution, 1763–1818. By James L. Hill. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2022. Pp. 324. $65.00 cloth; $65.00 ebook) Historians of foreign relations often struggle to define the amount of control that ordinary people have over the crafting of foreign policy. In the United States, diplomatic historians tend to focus on the exploits of towering figures such as William Henry Seward and Henry Kissinger. On the rare occasions when the voting public is discussed, they are often depicted as an irrational body that fails to understand the nuances of international relations. Fortunately for us, James L. Hill rejects this notion in his excellent Creek Internationalism in an Age of Revolution, 1763–1818. Instead of merely focusing on the leader of each Creek town (known as the mēkko), Hill illustrates how each mēkko relied upon the advice and council of talwas (a community) and talofas (a smaller community that splintered from a talwa). Together, these communities helped forge what Hill refers to as "Creek internationalism," a foreign policy aimed at securing "recognition that their communities possessed sovereign rights equivalent to those of Euro-American nation-states" (pp. 15–16). Hill deftly uses chronological chapters to illustrate how Creek internationalism evolved over time. Chapter one demonstrates how various "Creek travelers… sought to forge new Euro-American [End Page 69] contacts or restore old ones by traveling to Havana and the Florida Gulf Coast" (p. 46). Chapter two moves into the era after the Revolutionary War, when Creek communities had to deal with increasing U.S. encroachment (p. 48). The two subsequent chapters investigate Creek attempts to establish alliances, or rebuild fractured ones, with the United States, Britain, Spain, and Indigenous nations (p. 135). Chapters five and six trace the gradual decline of Creek internationalism, as the United States launched its invasion (p. 199). "As for what remained outside of American control," Hill notes in his concluding chapter, "the American invasions had severed the land and its people into two blocs" (p. 205). Despite this gloomy conclusion, Hill offers a largely positive assessment of the role that Creek internationalism played in enabling Creek communities to successfully navigate an evolving North America. A decentralized structure allowed talwas and talofas to maintain needed flexibility and respond to a variety of crises. "Rather than view the disputes of the 1790s and early 1800s as a setback on the road to a Creek Nation," Hill observes, "it would be more accurate to frame talwas', talofas', and mēkkos' diverging responses as a return to the norm of asserting talwa autonomy through a community's diplomatic and political orientation" (p. 113). In making this argument, Hill frankly rejects the idea that a centralized authority was needed for the survival of Creek communities (p. 113). Over nearly six decades, Creek communities proved adept at keeping territory that was coveted by Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Publishing a book that adequately covers fifty-five years is an impressive feat. With that being stated, it would be useful to see how Creek internationalism functioned in the decades leading up to 1763. Because so much of this book analyzes the years after the United States declared its independence, it is difficult to determine how well Creek internationalism functioned in less stressful times. Was the division between talwas, talofas, and mēkkos successful when Creek communities were dealing with other Indigenous powers or when checking early Spanish and British encroachment? Hill captures the [End Page 70] usefulness of a decentralized form of diplomacy, so future historians will need to illuminate how it functioned in other times and places. When the only criticism that a reviewer can find is that the author could have covered a longer period, it is a sure sign that the book is a worthwhile read. Creek Internationalism in an Age of Revolution will be useful to all those interested in Indigenous history, the Revolutionary Era, and early U.S. empire. Scholars have too often ignored how Indigenous communities conducted their foreign policy and have downplayed how they repeatedly...

IntroductionTrans Victorians Ardel Haefele-Thomas (bio) On saturday, 26 May 1810, the following excerpt appeared in the Norfolk Chronicle, or, The Norwich Gazette describing the death of Chevalier/Chevalière d’Éon:1 The Chevalier D’Éon . . . died at his lodgings in New Milman Street, Guilford Street, on Tuesday last. . . . It will be remembered that a great doubt at one time existed to which gender he belonged, which, however, was set at rest by the verdict of 12 matrons who decided in favour of the female; and from that time to the present he wore the costume of that sex. But on his decease taking place it was unexpectedly discovered that the Chevalier was a perfect male! (“Postscript”) Fifty-five years later, during a terrible heat wave in London, the gifted surgeon and social reformer Dr. James Miranda Barry died of dehydration following a long illness. Despite Dr. Barry’s instructions before he died, Sophia Bishop, a charwoman, acted out of respect by preparing his body for burial at Kensal Green Cemetery. A few days after Dr. Barry’s burial, Bishop went to the military post at Horse Guards and told the authorities that Dr. Barry was a woman. As historian Rachel Holmes writes, “Barry’s own body passed into history as one of the most disputed corpses of the modern age” (3). Clearly, though, only five decades earlier, there was another body that was highly disputed in life as well as in death. This may seem like an odd and perhaps even sensational place to start my introduction to this special issue of Victorian Review on trans Victorians. D’Éon and Barry, though, exemplify a Victorian conundrum, or at least a conundrum for scholars of the nineteenth century. We have often looked to figures like d’Éon and Barry as examples to demonstrate the ways in which Victorians were caught up in the imperial project of categorization and obsessed with a rigid gender binary that assigned women to the private and men to the public sphere. As famous controversial public figures who were often written about in the British popular press because neither adhered to a strict gender binary, the ambassador and the doctor actually present Victorian scholars with an opportunity to move away from our [End Page 31] own narratives of nineteenth-century British culture as one of absolute binarisms. As the above news article regarding d’Éon exemplifies, the chevalier/chevalière’s sex was often in dispute because of the ambassador’s gender presentation. Over the course of the nineteenth century, d’Éon, instead of passing into obscurity, in many ways became legendary. In 1895, eighty-five years after d’Éon’s death, the Leeds Times published an article entitled “Duellists In Petticoats” that featured the late ambassador as one of the duellists: “As dauntless a fighter as ever buckled a sword during the year when Louis XV was King . . . was the Chevaliere d’Éon. Whether this strange being was a man or woman . . . is not positively known to this day” (4). It is important to note the newspaper’s spelling of d’Éon’s title in the feminine despite the majority of the news articles earlier in the century proclaiming d’Éon as a “perfect male.” The ambiguity surrounding d’Éon’s identity as either a man or a woman simultaneously points out a gender dichotomy and underscores the possibility of someone embodying both or neither. Likewise, Dr. James Miranda Barry was known during the time of his medical posts in South Africa, Jamaica, and Canada as a bit of dandy. He loved lavish and colourful waistcoats when he was out in society just as he often took British and Dutch authorities to task for the horrendous ways that former slaves, sex workers, and people suffering with Hansen’s Disease (leprosy) were treated.2 Interestingly, Barry’s masculinity was anything but hypermasculine. As Lord Albermarle wrote in his memoirs, “I beheld a beardless lad . . . with an unmistakable Scotch type of countenance—reddish hair, high cheek bones. . . . there was a certain effeminacy in his manner”(144). Like d’Éon before him, Dr. Barry never clung entirely to one side or the other of the...

Fifty-five Years Research Articles

Articles published on Fifty-five Years

Patterns of antidepressant use among older adults in Northern Ireland: An administrative data study.

Patterns of antidepressant prescribing and health-related outcomes among older adults in Northern Ireland: an administrative data study

ZMP — Where Are We After Fifty-Five Years?

Systematic literature review on bootstrapping procedure of FHE schemes

Islam, Merchants, and Capitalism: Fifty-Five Years in the Socioeconomic History of the Medieval Islamic World

Medals, Rings, and Olympic Dreams: A Review Essay of Antonio Sotomayor and Cesar R. Torres, eds., Olimpismo

Fifty-Five Years of Research on B, C and D in Escherichia coli.

Social Psychology Without Borders: Fifty-Five Years of Development and Achievements

Creek Internationalism in an Age of Revolution, 1763–1818 by James L. Hill

The Skin of Our Teeth, PlayMakers Repertory Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Pattern of adverse events following immunization among recipients of first dose of ChAdOx1-S [recombinant] Covid-19 vaccine in a resource-limited country

Comic China: Representing Common Ground, 1890–1945

Béâtrice Picon-Vallin. Le Théâtre du Soleil: The First Fifty-five Years. Translated by Judith G. Miller. Routledge, 2021.

Fifty-Five Years of Research Into Older People's Civic Participation: Recent Trends, Future Directions.

Fifty-Five Years Follow-Up of 111 Adult Survivors After Biventricular Repair of PAIVS and PS.

Reza Abdoh Today: Posthumous Reflections Fifty-Five Years after His Birth

Fifty-Five Years of Change in a Northwest Georgia Old-Growth Forest

Introduction: Trans Victorians

Fifty-Five Years of the Teaching of Informatics at Latvian Schools

Subject To Punishment: Julie Bovasso'sAngelo's Weddingand the Politics of the Unproduced

Lead the way for us

Editage

Paperpal

R Discovery

Mind the Graph

Fifty-five Years Research Articles

Articles published on Fifty-five Years

Patterns of antidepressant use among older adults in Northern Ireland: An administrative data study.

Patterns of antidepressant prescribing and health-related outcomes among older adults in Northern Ireland: an administrative data study

ZMP — Where Are We After Fifty-Five Years?

Systematic literature review on bootstrapping procedure of FHE schemes

Islam, Merchants, and Capitalism: Fifty-Five Years in the Socioeconomic History of the Medieval Islamic World

Medals, Rings, and Olympic Dreams: A Review Essay of Antonio Sotomayor and Cesar R. Torres, eds., Olimpismo

Fifty-Five Years of Research on B, C and D in Escherichia coli.

Social Psychology Without Borders: Fifty-Five Years of Development and Achievements

Creek Internationalism in an Age of Revolution, 1763–1818 by James L. Hill

The Skin of Our Teeth, PlayMakers Repertory Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Pattern of adverse events following immunization among recipients of first dose of ChAdOx1-S [recombinant] Covid-19 vaccine in a resource-limited country

Comic China: Representing Common Ground, 1890–1945

Béâtrice Picon-Vallin. Le Théâtre du Soleil: The First Fifty-five Years. Translated by Judith G. Miller. Routledge, 2021.

Fifty-Five Years of Research Into Older People's Civic Participation: Recent Trends, Future Directions.

Fifty-Five Years Follow-Up of 111 Adult Survivors After Biventricular Repair of PAIVS and PS.

Reza Abdoh Today: Posthumous Reflections Fifty-Five Years after His Birth

Fifty-Five Years of Change in a Northwest Georgia Old-Growth Forest

Introduction: Trans Victorians

Fifty-Five Years of the Teaching of Informatics at Latvian Schools

Subject To Punishment: Julie Bovasso'sAngelo's Weddingand the Politics of the Unproduced