Field Of Behavior Analysis Research Articles

Noncontingent Reinforcement: Behavioral Mechanisms Involved in Response Suppression and Treatment Efficacy

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) has been found to be an effective treatment for a variety of undesirable behaviors maintained by various types of reinforcement (e.g., social positive, social negative, and automatic). Throughout the last decade, over 100 research articles have been published on the topic of NCR as a treatment for maladaptive behavior. Research has involved questions ranging from treatment comparisons and efficacy to parametric analyses. Specifically, much of the research has questioned the specific behavioral mechanisms involved in the reduction of undesirable behavior. In addition, more recent studies have started to evaluate the efficacy of NCR with respect to both short- and long-term outcomes. This paper reviews these two prominent areas; highlighting particular research that is indicative of current views in the field of behavior analysis. In addition, suggestions for future research on NCR are provided.

Self-management and ADHD: A literature review.

Literature on self-management as it is applied to children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is reviewed in the context of Barkley's (1997) theoretical model of ADHD and best practices in overall treatment intervention. Searchers for articles in which self-management was applied to a sample with ADHD were conducted in medical, psychological, and educational databases. A total of fourteen articles and dissertations were located and reviewed. The authors' interpretations are discussed in light of Barkley's theoretical model and best practice in treatment. Future research directions and implications for practice are included. Keywords: Self-management, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Behavioral Intervention. ********** Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most prevalent neurobehavioral disorder diagnosed in children today with nearly 3.8 million diagnosed in the United States (Frazier & Merrell, 1997; Root & Resnick, 2003; Treat 2002). Given the prevalence of ADHD, considerable research has explored treatment options for this population. Literature reviews and meta-analyses of treatment options including medical management, psychosocial interventions, and educational treatments are available in their respective fields (see Conners; 2002; DuPaul & Eckert, 1997; Purdie, Hattie, & Carroll, 2002). This literature review briefly summarizes a theoretical model of ADHD and empirically supported best practices in treatment of ADHD as a means of establishing the context for a review of literature on self-management. The literature on self-management applied specifically to ADHD is limited in scope and contains discrepant findings. Variations in treatment methods and effects are considered. Future research directions and implications for professionals in the field of behavior analysis are discussed. Theoretical Model of ADHD and Support for Self-Management Teaching appropriate behavioral skills is a common intervention when an appropriate replacement behavior is warranted or a skill deficit is observed. Prior to teaching skills, it is always important to discriminate between actual behavioral deficits and behavioral performance. Barkley (2000) noted much of the research in the area of psychosocial and educational treatments for ADHD has been conducted based on the assumption that individuals with ADHD have skill deficits due to a lack of learning. He further postulated that these efforts have been misguided because a lack of learning is not the problem for this population. When considering treatment options, it is important to understand the nature of the disorder and the observed behavioral deficits. Barkley's (1997) theoretical model provides a useful context in which to evaluate possible treatment interventions and observed outcomes. Barkley (1997) proposed a theory of behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive function in which he ascribed the fundamental problem of ADHD to a deficit in inhibitory control caused by a neurological difference in the prefrontal cortex. This lack of inhibitory control in individuals with ADHD impairs the executive functions that control organization and planning identified as nonverbal working memory, internalization of speech, self-regulation of affect/motivation/arousal, and behavioral analysis and synthesis. These impaired executive functions directly affect an individual's ability to self-manage behavior by limiting their capacity to a) consider their own behavior in the context of past events or possible future consequences, b) internalize self-directing statements [which is the crux of cognitive-behavioral self-management, Michenbaum, (1977)], c) self-regulate emotional reactions, motivation or effort towards a goal, and arousal, and d) coordinate evaluation of behavior through analysis of events or synthesis of ideas. Empirical research supports this theoretical model and specifically the assumption that children with ADHD present a deficit in self-regulation (Douglas 1989; Miranda, Presentacion, & Soriano 2002; Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996; Sergeant & van der Meere, 1990; Tannock, 1998). …

Participants’ Sensitivity to Percentage Payback and Credit Value When Playing a Slot-Machine Simulation

Legalized gambling has become both a major industry and concern in the United States, but little research from the behavior-analytic perspective has been done on the topic. The present study consisted of two experiments that had participants play a computer-simulated slot machine. The variables manipulated were the percentage payback rate (i.e., overall rate of reinforcement) and the amount of money the credits being wagered were worth (i.e., reinforcer magnitude). Experiment 1 investigated these variables using a between-groups design. Experiment 2 investigated them using a within-subjects design. Results from both experiments demonstrated that participants' gambling behavior did not vary as a function of payback percentage. Their behavior was, however, sensitive to credit value; overall, participants bet less when the credits were worth more. These findings have potential implications for why some people display problem gambling. They will also hopefully promote research on a topic that has been largely ignored by the field of behavior analysis.

Scholarly productivity in behavior analysis: The most prolific authors and institutions from 1992 to 2001.

The field of behavior analysis has matured to the point that there are now over a dozen peerreviewed journals devoted exclusively to its content. Consequently, researchers have published with increasing frequency a number of bibliometric analyses in which journal content has been quantified and used as an index of research and publication practices in the field. Topics of bibliometric analyses of the behavioral literature include journal citation trends (Carr & Britton, 2003), assessment practices (Gresham, Gansle, & Noell, 1993), and general characteristics of applied behavior-analytic research (Northup, Vollmer, & Serrett, 1993), among others.

Da Aplysia à constituição: evolução de conceitos na análise do comportamento

Objetivou-se apresentar a evolucao de conceitos na analise do comportamento, especialmente nos trabalhos de Skinner, desde a definicao do conceito de operante, de contingencia de reforco, ate os processos de selecao por consequencias, seguindo o desenvolvimento de uma linguagem teorica que abarca desde o comportamento de moluscos ate o texto da Constituicao, enquanto metacontingencia. Os trabalhos iniciais de Skinner usavam a linguagem desenvolvida por Pavlov no estudo de reflexos condicionados para abranger todo o comportamento. De sua dissertacao de doutorado ate os trabalhos publicados nos anos 1980, Skinner evoluiu e com ele toda a analise do comportamento, que hoje usa a mesma linguagem mais sofisticada para abordar temas complexos como praticas culturais e a sobrevivencia de culturas.

Teaching receptive language to children with autism: A selective overview.

Receptive (to act based on an auditory stimulus) is an important and necessary foundational skill for children with autism. Several strategies establishing this repertoire have been developed within the field of early intensive behavior intervention (EIBI). An electronic literature review with the key words discrimination reveals extensive research by behavior analysts. However, has received far less attention. In this literature review we will present a brief summary of research findings describing the various behavioral strategies that have been effective in teaching children with autism and related developmental disabilities to act based on auditory stimuli whether labeling an object or following instructions. Keywords: Early and Intensive Behavioral Intervention, Receptive language, training techniques. Language Intervention for Children with Autism It is a well-known fact that approximately half of the autistic population fails to develop speech, and the majority fails to use speech in a functional manner when it does develop (Volkmar, 1991). For those children who do develop speech, their ability to communicate is often less advanced than their peers. These children may display speech that is often characterized by short utterances, lack of appropriate use of I/you pronouns, here/there constructions, and now/then relations, idiosyncratic use of words, and restricted use of grammatical structures (Tager-Flusberg, 1989). Furthermore, comprehension may also be severely impaired (Waterhouse & Fein, 1982). The multitude of research clearly documents that despite some recognizable patterns in the manifestation of autism there is much heterogeneity (Green, Fein, Joy, & Waterhouse, 1995). This heterogeneity is characteristic in both the symptoms that children with autism display as well as in the range of success that various children experience as a result of different types of interventions. Nevertheless, it is clear that when children experience severe delay in vocally or visually mediated their chances for inclusion educationally and socially become considerably lessened (Lovaas et al., 2003). For these reasons practitioners and researchers in the field of behavior analysis have invested their time in multiple efforts to develop based interventions that will effectively ameliorate delays in children with autism. Over the past four decades behaviorists have explored strategies for teaching to children with autism that have yielded effective data based interventions. These interventions have been described in sufficient detail and thus, have been often replicated successfully. Furthermore, these interventions have generated advanced use of in individuals with autism (Lovaas, 1987, 1993; McEachin, Smith, & Lovaas, 1993). More recently the behavioral approach referred to as Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI) focuses on interventions for children with autism. This approach consists of intensive intervention and comprehensive curriculum protocols combining operant procedures and more recently curriculum analysis and development procedures. Specifically, EIBI focuses on simultaneously building several skill domains, including functional communication, imitation, matching-to-sample, affiliate behavior, and basic receptive and with a gradual progression to increasingly more complex domains (Pelios & Lund, 2001). Language Redefined Behaviorally The terms expressive and language are borrowed from fields in psychology other than behavior analysis and despite their general use by behavior analysts are not considered behavioral terms. A behavioral definition of receptive attempts to specify the environmental antecedents and consequences under which such responses are likely to occur. Skinner first presented a complete behavioral interpretation of in his book Verbal Behavior published in 1957. …

Pioneer profiles: A few minutes with Sid Bijou

This article is an interview with Sidney W. Bijou. His education, work, accomplishments, and honors in the field of behavior analysis are reviewed and described in his own words. Some of his accomplishments include applying operant methodology to normal children and children with retardation, extending operant methodology with children from the laboratory to the natural environment, carrying the banner of behavior analysis to many foreign countries, teaching and advising many students of behavior analysis who have become well known as behavior analysts, and researching, developing, and commercializing such well-known products as the Edmark reading program, the Portage parent training program, and the Wide Range Achievement Test.

Constructing a behavior analytical helping process.

The language of behavior analysis and radical behaviorism can provide a coherent framework for the helping processes we call counseling or psychotherapy. This can best be done when we use concepts consistent with this framework and avoid the use of mentalistic terminology that is part of psychiatric diagnostic systems and various schools of counseling/psychotherapy. Goldiamond's constructional model is an example of a thoroughly behavior-analytic approach that can readily be applied in the counseling setting. This model is also very compatible with and was likely an influence on current schools operating within a solution-focused orientation. ********** This piece is a digest of some of the major themes included in presentations and workshops that I have given for a number of years at the conventions of the Association for Behavior Analysis. I feel that scientists and practitioners who work within the perspective of behavior analysis and its philosophy of science, radical behaviorism, should maintain a vocabulary and practice that are consistent with this framework. I believe the following items are essential to operating within this perspective. First, the language and semantics of the field are of critical importance. I am not sure whether the field of behavior analysis should have a future. In saying this, I do not mean to assert that I think this work should stop, but that I have a problem with the term, behavior analysis. I realize, however, that it will be difficult to supplant it because of the strong tradition in psychology that is built around clinical psychology. I was trained as a clinical psychologist but I work in that somewhat distinctive environment called a counseling center and I call myself a counselor. I also avoid the use of any labels related to the so-called medical model - a model that I see as mentalistic when applied in the helping arena. I am somewhat of a purist and I try to avoid using any mentalistic terms such as mental health or mental illness, and I think other behavior analysts should do likewise. While I realize that many behavior analysts work within environments where they have to deal with these constructs, I can talk without difficulty to, for example, the people in our Health Services without using terms like diagnosis or treatment. I do not categorize my clientele in terms of the DSM-IV. A behavioral and developmental vocabulary provides for a comprehensive involvement and practice in the helping world that is also more optimistic than the DSM-IV. Further, in relation to a nonmentalistic view, I do not use the term, cognitive, and it makes me very uncomfortable to hear this word. Within the language of behavior analysis we can, as needed, adapt and indeed subsume the counseling techniques developed under the cognitive rubric. Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior (Skinner, 1957) and his concept of rule-governed behavior, which he was using by the early 1960's (Skinner, 1964), gives us this ability. I find that when I talk in terms of rules with my clients, they typically understand this more quickly and easily than they do the word cognition. Even when they have taken psychology courses, they do not find the latter word as useful. Cognition is a mentalistic term that is used because of its compatibility with everyday language but also in part because it functions to enable humans to maintain, through conceptual means, their position at the top of the animal hierarchy. Further, the use of a cognitive vocabulary seems related to the culture's discomfort with the view that humans may operate pretty well as other organisms do. Moving to a second important consideration with respect to the future of behavior analysts as helping professionals, I think that Goldiamond's (1974) article, Toward a Constructional Approach to Social Problems, (expanded upon in a book by Swartz and Goldiamond, 1975) is a landmark in relation to behavior analytic counseling. …

The role of behavior analysis in school psychology.

The role of behavior analysis in school psychology is ever evolving. Recently, the federal requirement of conducting functional behavioral assessments for a subgroup of children identified with disabilities has brought the need for behavior analysis to the forefront of school psychology. Presently, behavior analysis is influencing both assessment and consultation conducted in the schools. However, given the necessity for intensive training in behavior analysis and the limited training available in this area in many school psychology programs, a serious problem may be faced by the field. The future of behavior analysis within the context of school psychology is considered. ********** The field of school psychology is dedicated to the science and practice of psychology with children, youth, families; learners of all ages; and the schooling process (APA). Behavioral technology has always played a role in school psychology, but similar to other subspecialties, school psychology is a diverse field and includes professionals representing many different theoretical orientations. Thus, school psychologists who do not endorse a behavioral orientation are not required to take advantage of advances in behavioral technology. Recent changes in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; Public Law 105-17, 1997), however, may catapult more school psychologists into the arena of behavior analysis. Specifically, IDEA now requires a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) to be conducted for a child with an identified disability when serious behavioral concerns have been identified that could lead to significantly reduced access to educational services (e.g., suspensions for 10 days) or changes in placement to alternative educational settings (IDEA; Public Law 105-17, 1997). For example, a FBA should be conducted if drug or weapons charges are in place so a child's placement is changed to a more restrictive environment that is consistent with stated disciplinary policy for all children. Given the training most practitioners have in traditional assessment procedures, the school psychologist may expect to receive requests for conducting FBAs (Shriver & Watson, 1999). Thus, although the field of behavior analysis has had the greatest impact on school psychology via behavioral consultation, the role of behavior analysis in school psychology is an evolving one. The field of school psychology is responding to both the changing needs in schools and modifications in federal law that can be best met through the application of behavior analytic principles and methods. In order to better understand the relevance of behavior analysis in school psychology, a brief discussion of behavioral assessment and behavioral consultation, as well as the future impact of behavior analysis on the field of school psychology follows. Behavioral Assessment FBAs have become a more common practice in the schools because federal law now requires FBAs to be conducted when a change in placement is being considered for a child with an identified disability when significant behavioral problems are interfering with obtaining educational services in a child's present placement. Regrettably, FBA has not been specifically defined in IDEA, thus school psychologists and other behavioral specialists can choose between a range of procedures that fall under the umbrella of FBA. For example, descriptive procedures such as interviews, rating scales, or direct observation as well as experimental procedures such as brief, extended (i.e., a 1a Iwata, 1982), or hypothesis-driven functional analysis may be employed in order to meet the legal requirement of conducting an FBA. However, it is noteworthy that the federal government has sanctioned a specific behavioral technology for use in the schools (Telzrow, 1999). This recent change clearly increases the value of training and expertise in behavior analysis for school psychologists because failure to conduct, interpret, and assist in the implementation of interventions based on FBAs will necessarily diminish their role in the schools. …

The Historical Roots of Organizational Behavior Management in the Private Sector

Applications of behavior analysis in the private sector became visible in the late 1960s and early 1970s. By the 1980s, the field of Organizational Behavior Management (OBM) was a well established discipline. This article chronicles the people, events and publications that contributed to the formation of the field, beginning with the precursors in the 1950s and ending in the early 1980s. The contributions of individuals who have been honored by the OBM Network are detailed and emphasized. Although some historical accounts attribute the development of OBM to influences from traditional management fields, the present account, through documentation of the formative events, argues that the field developed in relative isolation from such influences, emanating primarily from Skinner's development of programmed instruction and the advent of behavioral applications in other settings. While application of psychology to the work place predated behavioral involvement, the primary force for the development and growth of OBM came from within the field of behavior analysis.

REVIEW OF ANTECEDENT CONTROL: INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO BEHAVIORAL SUPPORT, EDITED BY J. LUISELLI AND M. CAMERON

This review identifies antecedent manipulation and the role of establishing operations as primary themes of the book as well as crucial elements in the design of a broadly applicable behavior support technology. The discussion of the book's thematic treatment of these elements highlights the traditional importance of elaborate antecedent interactions within the field of behavior analysis and welcomes researchers' efforts to broaden their credibility and influence through comprehensive and durable applications of behavior support technologies in a variety of natural settings. The reviewers rate the book as representative of the most recent developments and directions within applied behavior support.

Frequency Measures of Behavior for Assistive Technology and Rehabilitation

Documenting assistive technology outcomes has grown in importance, but outcome measurement remains problematic. A new approach uses natural science measures and a model (selectionism) from the field of Behavior Analysis. Selectionism defines behaviors by their effects (functional performance) and the environment (including technology) within which they occur, and explicitly treats variation in patterns of behavior over time for individuals (intervention effects). Its basic metric is frequency of behaviors (count per unit time) which is similar to robust engineering measures like centimeters, grams, and seconds. This approach eliminates many of the problems inherent to more traditional psychometrics. Selectionism based on frequencies also provides an empirical structure or taxonomy to organize efforts and outcomes, unified by the notion of fluency. Composite behaviors are combinations of smaller component behaviors that are required for performance of the composite. A frequency above which a component behavior is readily retained, generalized, and recruited into the more complex composite behavior is called fluency; thus individuals fluent on the critical components easily and efficiently demonstrate the composite. This model suggests that when assistive technology interventions raise component behavior frequencies to fluent levels, they will be integrated usefully into an individual's life. This selectionistic approach has been used successfully in the field of education. It has the added benefit of not only empirically defining measurable outcomes, but also of providing useful ongoing measurement of change during treatment. This paper briefly describes this "Precision Measurement" strategy and its data-driven feedback process and makes suggestions for further research and development efforts. The method provides a basis for better documentation, control, and outcomes of assistive technology and related interventions.

Comments on Skinner’s grammar

The strong tradition of "school room" grammars may have had a negative influence on the reception given a functional analysis of verbal behavior, both within and without the field of behavior analysis. Some of the failings of those traditional grammars, and their largely prescriptive nature were outlined through reference to other critics, and conflicting views. Skinner's own treatment of grammatical issues was presented, emphasizing his view of a functional unit and his use of the autoclitic and intraverbal functions to describe alternatives to a formal or structural analysis. Finally, the relevance of stimulus control variables to some recurring questions about verbal behavior and, specifically grammar, were mentioned.

Describing Behavior with Ratios of Count and Time

Describing behavior with ratios of count and time is a popular measurement tactic in the field of behavior analysis. The paper examines some count and time ratios in order to determine what about behavior each describes and why one ratio may sometimes be more useful than another. In addition, the paper briefly considers some terminological issues, derived quantities, dimensional analysis, some advantages and disadvantages of ratios, and selection of useful quantities for measurement.

A Behaviorist’s Response to the Report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education

The National Commission on Excellence in Education was charged with the responsibility for examining the quality of education in America. Its report, "A Nation at Risk" (1983), contained a set of alarming facts about the status of American education. These were followed by a set of five major recommendations for improving the situation. They related to (1) content, (2) standards and expectations, (3) time, (4) teaching, and (5) leadership and support. The present paper examines each of the set of recommendations from a behavior analytic perspective. It notes what the field of behavior analysis can say on the subject now; what it potentially might address and remediate at this time; what it might explore and predict; and in general what it can do to make a difference. Behavior analysis has made many important discoveries that should be communicated to educators and the public, and it has tools and concepts for further contributing toward the improvement of education.

Behavior analysis and developmental psychology.

Relationships between the fields of behavior analysis and developmental psychology are examined. First, the influence of behavior-analytic research within developmental psychology is surveyed. In the

The concept of behavioral specificity: three concepts.

A brief review of specificity theories in relationship to illness is identified. Psychosomatic medicine has gradually moved from unitary-specificity relationships to multi-specificity ones. This movement has been determined by the increasing number of factors that are temporally and sequentially related to illness. The relationship of specific factors to disease is seen as derivative, generative or coincidental. Particular attention is addressed to the social life field in which illness develops, is responded to by the patient and treated by the physician. The emerging field of behavioral analysis allows for the identification of discrete factors which may be correlated with specific behaviors. Such relationships are amenable to behavioral interventions which are specific. Change is measurable. The patient takes an active part in the therapy by noting the relationship of environmental events to specific reactions. As these are recognized through encouragement, relaxation, desensitization and reinforcement, maladaptive responses are replaced by adaptive ones.

The expression of affection: Suggestions for research with developmentally disabled children

Abstract Some developmentally disabled children may not receive or express as much affection as normal children because of the physical limitations imposed by their handicaps, severe behavior problems, lack of responsiveness, caregiver discouragement, and family stress. Suggestions for research on this crucial but neglected subject are presented based on a review of pertinent literature from the fields of behavior analysis, child development, and special education. Four major topics are addressed: (a) impact of disabilities on the expression of affection; (b) assessment of attachment; (c) reinforcement function of affection; and (d) procedures to teach and encourage the expression of affection. Research on factors which affect the expression of affection could contribute to the effectiveness of teaching and treatment programs and the enjoyment developmentally disabled children and their caregivers experience in their interactions.