Field-level Data Research Articles

INNOVATIONS IN FINANCIAL INCLUSION OF THE URBAN POOR: A MODEL OF RAHAT CREDIT COOPERATIVE SOCIETY, INDIA

Most of the Asian countries face challenge of poverty which is linked with unemployment. Lack of assets and income make poor unable to invest for self employment or for knowledge /skill development leading to employment. Access to financial services may help people to come out of poverty through variety of ways like availing credit, insurance and saving facilities. In India, in spite of several initiatives for financial inclusion, field level data shows that by merely opening bank account the access to credit may not be there and financial inclusion in true sense may not happen. The microfinance movement had regional success in India. There are almost 35% urban poor in India indicating the need of innovations in financial services for them. “Rahat Urban Credit Cooperative Society” was a initiative in 2008 of few persons belonging to Islam religion and believing on the teachings of Quran that the interest should not be taken. Though inspired by a particular religion the services are extended to all community groups. In today’s context when different religions are discussed for using the religious values/teachings negatively, Rahat will be a unique example how religious teachings can be utilized positively for society’s benefits. Since 2011, besides usual financial products, it gives interest free and collateral free loans for urban poor for self employment and for consumption purposes. The case study focuses on understanding the community based business model and its impact on urban poor in terms of their financial needs by analyzing the financial performance. The study explores how 98% recovery rate for loans is there and how depositors are attracted for interest free product. It also tries to understand the use of social capital in provision of financial services for urban poor having inability to give collateral. “Rahat” means relief. The present paper l brings out a Rahat model of financial services and inclusion of urban poor and try to understand how it has brought the relief in urban poor lives.

Mapping Smallholder Wheat Yields and Sowing Dates Using Micro-Satellite Data

Remote sensing offers a low-cost method for developing spatially continuous crop production statistics across large areas and through time. Nevertheless, it has been difficult to characterize the production of individual smallholder farms, given that the land-holding size in most areas of South Asia (<2 ha) is smaller than the spatial resolution of most freely available satellite imagery, like Landsat and MODIS. In addition, existing methods to map yield require field-level data to develop and parameterize predictive algorithms that translate satellite vegetation indices to yield, yet these data are costly or difficult to obtain in many smallholder systems. To overcome these challenges, this study explores two issues. First, we employ new high spatial (2 m) and temporal (bi-weekly) resolution micro-satellite SkySat data to map sowing dates and yields of smallholder wheat fields in Bihar, India in the 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 growing seasons. Second, we compare how well we predict sowing date and yield when using ground data, like crop cuts and self-reports, versus using crop models, which require no on-the-ground data, to develop and parameterize prediction models. Overall, sow dates were predicted well (R2 = 0.41 in 2014–2015 and R2 = 0.62 in 2015–2016), particularly when using models that were parameterized using self-report sow dates collected close to the time of planting and when using imagery that spanned the entire growing season. We were also able to map yields fairly well (R2 = 0.27 in 2014–2015 and R2 = 0.33 in 2015–2016), with crop cut parameterized models resulting in the highest accuracies. While less accurate, we were able to capture the large range in sow dates and yields across farms when using models parameterized with crop model data and these estimates were able to detect known relationships between management factors (e.g., sow date, fertilizer, and irrigation) and yield. While these results are specific to our study site in India, it is likely that the methods employed and the lessons learned are applicable to smallholder systems more generally across the globe. This is of particular interest given that similar high spatio-temporal resolution micro-satellite data will become increasingly available in the coming years.

Adoption of Modern Rice Cultivation Practices in Bihar, India: Micro-level Evidences from Village-Level Studies

This study was conducted to understand the adoption of improved technologies and cultivation practices in rice production in Bihar. The study is based on the high-frequency field-level data being collected under ICAR-ICRISAT project on village dynamics studies in South Asia. The findings of the study show that the adoption of modern technology is directly related to the size of holding. The inverse relationship between productivity and farm size has ceased to operate in recent years. This study reaffirms this trend. The study suggests for designing appropriate and implementable agrarian policies with strong monitoring and evaluation framework to accelerate the speed of adoption of modern technologies to enhance rice productivity in eastern India in general and Bihar in particular.

Conservation Practices and the Growth of US Cash Rent Leases

Over the past 20 years the ratio of cash rent to cropshare land leases across the US has more than doubled. We test different theories that might explain this, and conclude that the shift is mostly the result of revolutionary changes in cultivation practices. The switch from conventional to conservation tillage brought about by changes in herbicide technologies, genetically modified seeds, increased fuel costs, and knowledge of the benefits of soil micro-organisms, has reduced a tenant-farmer's ability to exploit a landowner's soil. This removes a major incentive to cropshare and makes cash renting more attractive. Using USDA field-level data from across the US, we find strong support for this hypothesis, and some evidence that increased corporate structure also influences cash renting. Alternatively, we cannot find evidence that changes in risk, risk-aversion or insurance coverage explain the growth in cash renting.

Improving the Efficiency of Voluntary Water Quality Conservation Programs

Voluntary approaches have traditionally been used to address environmental externalities emanating from agricultural production in the United States. However, voluntary approaches have largely failed to improve water quality in impaired waters. This paper assesses how to increase the efficiency of voluntary conservation in the context of the Chesapeake Bay. Field-level data representative of cropland in the bay watershed are analyzed using a programming model to quantify the gains of targeting technology-based incentives and of performance-based incentives. Performance-based approaches were the most efficient. The efficiency of technology-based approaches was improved by targeting cropland with features indicative of low marginal abatement costs.

Magnetic Field Measurement from 132 kV and 275 kV Overhead Transmission Lines Within Residential Area

Overhead transmission line (OTL) has been around for so many years as one of the most important elements of electric power systems. Conductors, as being a part of the medium to transfer electricity through the OTL, produces electromagnetic field to its surrounding that have been a public concern for ages. OTL were meant to be built as far away from a population. Though from time to time, the OTL rights-of-way (ROW) were violated due to lack of space and rapid urbanization. This paper addresses the challenges faced during magnetic field level measurement within a residential area that was still under construction. EMDEX II Meter, Linear Data Acquisition System (LINDA) Wheel and Gauss Meter were used during the magnetic field measurements. Maximum magnetic field level data collected from measurement were presented.

GIS and Multi Criteria Decision Method Based Approach of Identifying Appropriate Landfill Sites for the City Of Chittagong

Urban solid waste management is a serious environmental issue confronting the cities in developing countries like Bangladesh. Apathy towards the problem, inadequacy of field level information and data, and resource constraints may be blamed for the dismal situation of solid waste management often visible in our cities. The most common problems associated with the absence of sustainable solid waste management practice include diseases transmission, odour nuisance, atmospheric and water pollution, visual blight, fire hazards and economic losses. In the three major cities of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Chittagong & Khulna, per capita production of solid waste is around 0.4kg /capita / day, but only a fraction of this waste is carried to the final disposal site. A recent study on Municipal Solid Waste Management found that waste generated in Chittagong was 0.352kg/cap/day. Considering per capita generation of solid waste as 0.352kg to 0.4kg per capita per day, for a population of 25, 92,459 distributed within the 41 wards of the city (BBS, 2011), total solid waste generated in Chittagong will be around 913 tons to 1037 tons per day in 2012. Currently, Chittagong City Corporation (CCC) has only two dumping yards: one at Ananda Bazar, Halishahar at the mid western part of the city and the other at Arefin Nagar, Pahartali at the northern tip of the city. None of these sites are sanitary landfill. Considering the city area of 168 sq. kms, only two dumping sites are not sufficient to cater to the requirement of the city. Long distances between the collection points and the disposal site are responsible for inefficient utilization of the CCC trucks and the resulting increase in the haulage time that eventually increases the costs of collection and disposal. This study utilized Geographic Information System (GIS) and Multi-Criteria Decision Method (MCDM) for the identification and selection of appropriate landfill sites within the city of Chittagong. Thirteen sites were identified initially. Out of these sites four were found to be most appropriate and suitable for use as landfill. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ije.v4i1.12174International Journal of Environment Volume-4, Issue-1, Dec-Feb 2014/15, page: 1-15

Price spread in marketing of grapes in Pune district of Maharastra

The focus of the present study was on marketing management of grape in Pune district of Maharashtra. A sample size of 90 farmers and 30 market intermediaries was selected using proportionate random sampling method. Field level data were elicited for the agriculture year 2012-13 through personal interview method. The grading, packaging, transport and commission charges were the major important cost. The per kg. cost of transportation was Rs. 0.83. The commission of intermediaries was Rs. 2.90 per kg. The per kg. marketing cost for 20 kg. crate, 5 kg. box and 2 kg. box was worked out to Rs. 4.39, Rs.5.70, and Rs. 5.20, respectively. It was observed that at the overall level about 37.78 per cent growers preferred channel IV (Producer – Pre-harvest contractors-Retailer-Consumer) and also quantity sold was large, which is 59.32 per cent. Channel III and IV was generally followed to market the grapes to outside state market and to within state markets and quantity marketed was 28.15 and 36.76 per cent, respectively. The producers shares in consumers rupees in case of channel – I, II and IV was 71.06, 61.70 and 63.48 per cent, respectively.

Greater sensitivity to drought accompanies maize yield increase in the U.S. Midwest.

A key question for climate change adaptation is whether existing cropping systems can become less sensitive to climate variations. We use a field-level data set on maize and soybean yields in the central United States for 1995 through 2012 to examine changes in drought sensitivity. Although yields have increased in absolute value under all levels of stress for both crops, the sensitivity of maize yields to drought stress associated with high vapor pressure deficits has increased. The greater sensitivity has occurred despite cultivar improvements and increased carbon dioxide and reflects the agronomic trend toward higher sowing densities. The results suggest that agronomic changes tend to translate improved drought tolerance of plants to higher average yields but not to decreasing drought sensitivity of yields at the field scale.

Economics of income generating activities under SHG finance in Meghalaya

The present study was conducted in West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya covering four blocks viz. Rongram, Dadenggre, Gambegre and Selsela. A sample size of 200 SHG beneficiaries was selected by using multiple stage random sampling method. Field level data was elicited for the year 20010-11 through personal interview method. For analyzing the data, tabular analysis was employed. The main income generating activities of SHG beneficiaries were agricultural and plantation crops, livestock farming and business and cottage industries. The cost of Income Generating Activities (IGAs) was estimated based on establishment and maintenance cost. The results revealed that per farm total cost of IGAs was estimated to be Rs. 28088.51 in the average farm situation. The net return over total cost in these major IGAs was Rs. 77637.55 in the average farm situation. Return per rupee of expenditure was found to be the highest in agricultural and plantation crops. The IGAs taken up by the sample SHG beneficiaries under SHG finance were profitable in the area.

Interactive Linear Models in Survey Sampling

Considered is a linear 'interactive' model in the context of survey sampling. This situation arises when investi- gator and/or supervisor interventions are contemplated in the responses. An appropriate linear model is intro- duced to represent the response profile(s) arising out of each respondent-cum-investigator-cum-supervisor com- bination as per the planned 'design layout'. Two situations (blinded and unblinded submission of responses) are differentiated and corresponding data analysis techniques are discussed. Variance components are assumed to be known in this study. 1. Introduction to Survey Design and Interactive Linear Model Considered is the set-up of simple i.e., direct response on a quantitative response variable Y in the context of a finite labeled population of size N. It so happens that in actual surveys, we need investi- gators and often some supervisors as well. The instruction manuals are prepared for the investigators to maintain uniformity in data collection. The field level data are collected by the investigators. The scrutiny manual is prepared for scrutiny of the filled-in schedules by the supervisors. This is accom- plished independently of the investigators. We depict a situation wherein there are possibilities of investigator intervention effect and/or supervisor intervention effect on the response profiles before the same are finally received by the data collection agency. Of course, these intervention effects may be assumed to be random, having mean zero, non-interactive within and between the two sets of 'people'. The problem is to unbiasedly estimate the finite population total of the response vari- able Y by incorporating a fixed size (n) sampling design and by administering the sampling design in a situation wherein the above two types of random effects are likely to be present. Denote by i a respondent unit in the sample of size n and by S(i) the number of schedule-based observations collected on this particular unit. It is quite possible that a respondent unit is composed of more than one individual. In this article, we will deal with fixed-size non-overlapping clusters of individuals to represent such respondent units. These clusters are formed before the sampling

Does the growing of Bt maize change abundance or ecological function of non-target animals compared to the growing of non-GM maize? A systematic review protocol

Abstract Background Since 1996, genetically modified (GM) crops have been grown on an ever increasing area worldwide. Maize producing a Cry protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) was among the first GM crops released for commercial production and it is the only GM crop currently cultivated in Europe. A major part of the regulatory process that precedes the commercial release of GM crops is the environmental risk assessment. Because Bt maize is modified to produce insecticidal proteins, potential interactions with non-target organisms are a major area of concern to be addressed in the risk assessment. In particular, beneficial arthropods that provide important agro-ecological services, such as pollination, decomposition, and biological control are the focus. This systematic review will evaluate if the growing of Bt maize changes abundance or ecological function of non-target animals compared to the growing of conventional, non-GM maize. The review will be limited to plot or field level data including field margins. Potential cropping system effects and off-field effects will not be addressed. Bt maize will be compared to conventional maize either untreated or treated with chemical insecticides. Methods Stakeholders from academia, competent authorities, industry, and civil society organizations were given the opportunity to comment on the review question and an earlier draft of this review protocol. Keyword searches will be conducted in a range of abstracting and full text literature databases. Retrieved records will be screened against a set of inclusion criteria, first on title and abstract level, then on full text level. Selected studies will be evaluated for risks of bias (quality assessment). Data on field/plot characteristics, maize cultivars, insecticide treatments, non-target animal taxa, sampling methods, and response variables of populations and ecological functions will be extracted. Meta-analysis will be conducted using the effect size estimator Hedge’s d on a range of comparisons and including sensitivity analysis. The review process will be fully documented in CADIMA, an open access online data portal for evidence synthesis.

Universal access to medicines: evidence from Rajasthan, India.

India has outlined its commitment to achieving universal health coverage and several states in India are rolling out strategies to support this aim. In 2011, Rajasthan implemented an ambitious universal access to medicines programme based on a centralized procurement and decentralized distribution model. In terms of the three dimensions of universal health coverage, the scheme has made significant positive strides within a short period of implementation. The key objectives of this paper are to assess the likely implications of providing universal access to essential medicines in Rajasthan, which has a population of 70 million. Primary field-level data were obtained from 112 public health-care facilities using multistage random sampling. National Sample Survey Organization data and health system data were also analysed. The per capita health expenditure during the pre-reform period was estimated to be ₹5.7 and is now close to ₹50. Availability of essential medicines was encouraging and utilization of public facilities had increased. With additional per capita annual investment of ₹43, the scheme has brought about several improvements in the delivery of essential services and increased utilization of public facilities in the state and, as a result, enhanced efficiency of the system. Although there was an attempt to convert the scheme into a targeted one with the change in government, strong resistance from the civil society resulted in such efforts being defeated and the universality of the scheme has been retained.

An Economic Study of Low Lying Inland Fish Farming in Selected Areas of Kishoreganj District

The study was designed to examine the low lying inland fish farming practices of Karimganj upazila under Kishoreganj districts. Field level data were collected through direct interview using semi-structured questionnaire. Eighty sample farmers were selected purposively from the study areas. Six types of farming practices were identified in the study area among which only two types were prominent i.e., pond fish farming and Beel fish farming. Tabular, statistical and mathematical analyses were done to achieve the major objectives. The benefit cost ratio in Beel fish farming was 2.86 and in case of pond fish farming it was 1.95. Multiple regression model was used to explain the variation of gross return of pond and Beel fish farming and it was found that coefficients of human labour, feed, cowdung and manure had significant impact on gross return, whereas coefficients of feed, harvesting and making sanctuary had significant impact on gross return of Beel fish farming. Resource use efficiency was calculated by the ratio of marginal value product and marginal factor cost. Finally, the study identified some important problems of low lying inland fish farming and suggested probable solutions relating to the problems.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/pa.v23i1-2.16619Progress. Agric. 23(1 & 2): 81 – 90, 2012

Economic implications of groundwater exploitation in hard rock areas of southern peninsular India

The present paper analyses the consequences of groundwater exploitation by using field-level data collected from two distinct well irrigated areas of Karnataka. The study results show that the consequences arising out of groundwater overexploitation are severe in high well interference area compared to low well interference area. The burden of well failure is more or less equally shared by all categories of farmers but small farmers are the worst victims of resource scarcity. As a result, overexploitation of groundwater has different impacts on different categories of farmers in terms of access to groundwater, cost and returns to groundwater irrigation and its negative externality cost. The study suggests maintaining inter-well distance to prevent resource mining and calls for supply and demand side interventions. The institutional reform is necessary to restore surface water bodies to facilitate aquifer recharge.

A comparative analysis of conservation agriculture systems: Benefits and challenges of rotations and intercropping in Zimbabwe

Increasing soil degradation in southern Africa and the potentially negative effects of climate change demand “greener” solutions to reverse this trend. Conservation agriculture (CA) has been proposed as one of those solutions and field level data show marked benefits of this new cropping system. Nevertheless, the use of rotations and/or associations in CA systems is challenging at both the farm and community level. Intercropped maize (Zea mays L.) with grain legumes, cowpea and pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.)), as well as maize rotated with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. (Walp)) and sunnhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca L.) was studied for up to eight seasons under CA and conventional agriculture in Zimbabwe. The objective of this study, carried out on-farm and on-station, was to highlight the effects of CA systems on some soil quality indicators and crop productivity. Where possible the specific effects of rotation and intercropping was separated and compared with monocropping. The on-station and on-farm results show: an increase of up to 331% in water infiltration, a 31% greater soil carbon in the top 60cm than on adjacent conventionally ploughed fields, a 6% lower bulk density in the top 10cm and 32.5–36tha−1 less cumulative soil erosion in CA fields after seven cropping seasons compared with the conventional control treatment. The comparative productivity analysis between continuous maize, maize intercropped with cowpea or pigeonpea and maize in rotation with cowpea or sunnhemp, shows marked benefits of rotation especially in CA systems. The benefits of CA especially when rotated with leguminous crops, increase over time, suggesting that there are improvements in soil structure and fertility. However, field level benefits will not increase the overall adoption of rotations and intercropping in CA systems, unless the socio-economic constraints at the farm and community level are addressed.

The economic environment and the growth in reserves from known gas fields in the Gulf of Mexico

Abstract The vast proportion of yearly oil and gas reserve additions are accounted for by reserve changes in known oil and gas fields. For example, in 2008 approximately 96% of the dry natural gas reserve additions in the United States were accounted for by reserve changes in known fields. The increase in proved ultimate recovery that results from these reserve changes is known as reserve appreciation or reserve growth. Ideally, reserve growth should be measured by comparing the current known petroleum volumes equal to cumulative production plus remaining reserves of fields discovered in say, 1950, with their initial discovery sizes. Unfortunately, implementing the ideal is often not possible since the initial discovery sizes of fields discovered before 1975, or thereabouts, are many times unknown. Up to now, the standard solution to the problem has been based largely on the work of Arrington (1960) who developed a method to estimate reserve growth when initial discovery sizes are unknown and the number of time series observations is small. While the contribution of the economic environment to the growth process has been acknowledged by geologists, the application of the Arrington method presumes that growth is independent of the economic environment. In our view, this creates a bias. For example, if, as we suspect, the economic environment affects reserve growth, then an Arrington-based supply analysis will underestimate the response of supplies to higher prices. In this paper, we employ a rich database from the former United States Minerals Management Service (MMS) to evaluate the contribution of the economic environment to the reserve growth process. In contrast to Forbes and Zampelli (2009) which examined reserve growth at the individual field level, the analysis in this paper aggregates the field level data based on the year of first production. One advantage of this approach is that it has the potential to yield insights about the resource potential of a particular geologic province. The results strongly suggest that age is not the sole factor in explaining a field’s annual reserve growth. In particular, we find that the annual growth rate in the known petroleum volumes of a field is affected by the economic environment as proxied by price. Incorporation of this effect into the modeling process has the potential to improve the accuracy of resource assessments.

Total factor productivity growth and convergence in the petroleum industry: Empirical analysis testing for convexity

While economic theory acknowledges that some features of technology (e.g., indivisibilities, economies of scale and specialization) can fundamentally violate the traditional convexity assumption, almost all empirical studies accept the convexity property on faith. In this contribution, we apply two alternative flexible production technologies to measure total factor productivity growth and test the significance of the convexity axiom using a nonparametric test of closeness between unknown distributions. Based on unique field level data on the petroleum industry, the empirical results reveal significant differences, indicating that this production technology is most likely non-convex. Furthermore, we also show the impact of convexity on answers to traditional convergence questions in the productivity growth literature.

Economic Performance Of Organic Cropping Systems For Vegetables In The Northeast

This article provides an economic analysis comparing the profitability and land management capability of four different organic cropping systems designed for vegetable production in the Northeast. Integrated crop budgets were developed to document both receipts and production costs for each system. Using field-level data from trials between 2005 and 2009, we found that individual crops respond differently to the different systems, and that the high intensity system producing six cash crops generated the greatest economic returns. Subsequent sensitivity analyses were performed across a range of key parameters, and the results indicated that profitability was most impacted by yields and crop prices.

How to Access Factory Floor Information Using Internet Technologies and Gateways

Information transfer is an essential factor in automation systems. For reasons of practicability, the development of industrial communication networks focused on horizontal aspects, i.e., the provision of suitable automation networks on the various levels. Conversely, vertical integration has become a topic of interest only in the recent past and mostly concerns the interconnection of field-level networks and IP-based office-type networks. Such interconnection can reasonably be achieved via gateways. This survey paper reviews concepts and defines a set of criteria that are relevant for the design of such gateways. Furthermore, it compares the applicability of common Internet communication standards like SNMP, LDAP, SQL, native web technologies, OPC XML-DA, and OPC UA as higher-level access protocols to field-level data, thus providing a basis for vertical integration on an application level. For comparison, a dedicated proprietary protocol is discussed as well.