Field Expeditions Research Articles

USING HERBARIUM DATA TO INCREASE THE LIKELIHOOD OF FINDING FERTILE PLANTS IN THE FIELD

The Phenological Predictability Index (PPI) is an algorithm incorporated into Brahms, one of the most widely used herbarium database management systems. PPI uses herbarium specimen data to calculate the probability of the occurrence of various phenological events in the field. Our hypothesis was that use of PPI to quantify the likelihood that a given species will be found in flower bud, flower or fruit in a particular area in a specific period makes field expeditions more successful in terms of finding fertile plants. PPI was applied to herbarium data for various angiosperm species locally abundant in Central Brazil to determine the month in which they were most likely to be found, in each of five areas of the Distrito Federal, with flower buds, flowers or fruits (i.e. the ‘maximum probability month’ for each of these phenophases). Plants of the selected species growing along randomised transects were tagged and their phenology was monitored over 12 months (method 1), and two one-day field excursions to each area were undertaken, by botanists with no prior knowledge of whether the species had previously been recorded at these sites, to record their phenological state (method 2). The results showed that field excursions in the PPI-determined maximum probability month for flower buds, flowers or fruits would be expected to result in a > 90% likelihood of finding individual plants of a given species in each of these phenophases. PPI may fail to predict phenophase for species with supra-annual reproductive events or with high event contingency. For bimodal species, the PPI-determined maximum probability month is that in which a specific phenophase is likely to be most intense. In planning an all-purpose collecting trip to an area with seasonal plant fertility, PPI scores are useful when selecting the best month for travel.

Особенности национальной одежды алтайцев

Introduction. With reference to works by Russian ethnographers and collected field materials, the paper presents the first insight into specific features of Altaian traditional clothes and changes the latter undergo in the modern period. Goals. The work primarily seeks to reveal transformations of Altaian national garments in the late 20th – early 21st centuries. Materials. The study examines data from field expeditions to Ust-Kansky, Shebalinsky and other districts of the Altai Republic in 2017-2019. The research data collection methods included those of questionnaires and interviews among local communities of the mentioned districts of the region. Results. The paper highlights various aspects of men’s and women’s clothes represented mainly by outer garments, such as sheepskin coats, e.g., nekey ton (a sheepskin coat a with long thick fur), akar ton (a coat sheepskin with short thick fur), kyptu ton (a coat with fabric-trimmed upper elements), tortok ton (a short sheepskin coat), and also sleeveless jackets (kögÿspek) and national gowns (chekpen). The work describes caps worn both by men and women (tÿlkÿ bychkak börÿk, talbañ börÿk, kish börÿk, bolchok börÿk), shoes made of fur (skin) from animals’ lower legs (bychkak ödÿk) or leather ones (katu/ köm ödÿk, charyk ödÿk, shiri ödÿk) usually decorated with upright pointed toes. Special attention is paid to women’s wedding and festal clothes, namely: dresses with wide sleeves and long cuffs that were to completely cover hands, the former decorated with buttons, beads, and ornaments to be worn under a full-length silk sleeveless jacket. The research explains differences between the classical and contemporary conventionalized chegedek full-length sleeveless jackets worn by women over a special dress during wedding ceremonies. Chegedek communicates a symbolic message that a girl acquires the new status of a married woman. Some attention is given to men’s undergarments, such as regular shirts (chamcha) mostly worn untucked with woolen trousers (shtan). Conclusions. The Altaian clothes have underwent certain changes but some centuries-old traditions survive till nowadays, e.g., women’s dresses are distinguished by special sleeves (ushtuktar) and ‘wings’ (kanattar). However, it is noteworthy that the tradition of selecting colors for garments with due regard of age and sex is lost, and layout of decorative elements has also changed. The loss of ethnic features in national clothes results from the wide use of commercial cloths and services of tailor shops.

A new species of driftwood catfish emCentromochlus/em Kner, 1858 (Siluriformes, Auchenipteridae, Centromochlinae) from Tocantins-Araguaia River drainage.

The genus Centromochlus includes eight catfish species in the Amazon and Orinoco river systems: C. schultzi from Xingu and Tocantins-Araguaia rivers; C. melanoleucus from Tapajós and Teles Pires rivers; C. macracanthus from Negro River; C. orca from Nhamundá River; C. heckelii and C. existimatus from Amazon and additionally at the Essequibo rivers; C. carolae and C. musaica from Orinoco River system. Recent field expeditions and collection examination revealed an undescribed species of Centromochlinae that has compatible features with Centromochlus. We herein describe a new species of Centromochlus from the Tocantins-Araguaia River drainage, diagnosed among most Centromochlinae by having a vermiculated color pattern on the dorsum and included in Centromochlus by sharing the derived features: ventrolateral position of eye socket; sphenotic notched for the exit of infraorbital canal; and posterior serrations along pectoral-fin spine numerous. The new species is diagnosed from congeners by having the pectoral-fin spine with dark bars, alternating with light bars (vs. pectoral-fin spine with light and uniform color in all Centromochlus); and it is further distinguished from its congeners (except C. carolae) by the ventral surface of head moderate to largely pigmented (vs. ventral surface of head unpigmented in C. heckelii, C. existimatus, C. orca, C. musaicus, C. schultzi, with few scattered dark chromatophores in C. macracanthus and C. melanoleucus; see diagnosis). A discussion about the systematics of the genus, plus the conservation status of the new species, and an identification key to species of Centromochlus, are also provided.

Wm. Wayt Thomas: A Career in Botany

During a botanical career that has spanned more than 35 years – almost all that time based at The New York Botanical Garden –, Wm. Wayt Thomas has participated in over 100 field expeditions and published almost 200 scientific works including two edited volumes, advised or co-advised 15 doctoral students, and became one of the world authorities on the systematics of the Cyperaceae. His research programs set down roots in Brazil, where his work has led to major advances in our knowledge of the flora of the Atlantic Coastal Forests and had significant impacts on conservation in that region. He has held leadership positions in the Organization for Flora Neotropica and the Species Plantarum Project. He has made perhaps his greatest contributions in forging productive international scientific collaborations and in mentoring young scientists who are becoming leaders in the botanical community – and who attest to his pivotal impacts on their professional lives.

Splenic contraction is enhanced by exercise at simulated high altitude

PurposeSplenic contraction increases circulating hemoglobin (Hb) with advantages during hypoxia. As both hypoxia and exercise have been shown to be important separate triggers of splenic contraction we aimed to investigate if the spleen response to simulated high altitude (HA) is enhanced by superimposing exercise.MethodFourteen healthy volunteers (seven females) performed the following protocol in a normobaric environment sitting on an ergometer cycle: 20 min rest in normoxia; 20 min rest while breathing hypoxic gas simulating an altitude of 3500 m; 10 min exercise at an individually set intensity while breathing the hypoxic gas; 20 min rest in hypoxia; and finally 20 min rest in normoxia. Spleen measurements were collected by ultrasonic imaging and venous Hb measured at the end of each intervention.ResultMean ± SD baseline spleen volume during normoxic rest was 280 ± 107 mL, the volume was reduced by 22% during rest in hypoxia to 217 ± 92 mL (p < 0.001) and by 33% during exercise in hypoxia (189 mL; p < 0.001). Hb was 140.7 ± 7.0 g/L during normoxic rest and 141.3 ± 7.4 g/L during hypoxic rest (NS), but increased by 5.3% during hypoxic exercise (148.6 ± 6.3 g/L; p < 0.001). Spleen volume and Hb were stepwise changed back to baseline at cessation of exercise and return to normoxia.ConclusionSplenic contraction is induced by hypoxia and further enhanced by superimposing exercise, and reduced when exercise ceases, in a step-wise manner, showing that the tonic but partial contraction observed in long-term field expeditions to HA may occur also in the short term. This “graded response” may be beneficial during acclimatization to HA, to cope with moderate chronic hypoxia during rest while allowing additional enhancement of oxygen carrying capacity to overcome short bouts of extreme hypoxia caused by exercise.

Insights into the ecology of sea turtles and the fisheries of eastern Guajira from the traditional knowledge of fishermen

The productive waters of the Guajira peninsula (Colombia) support unique marine ecosystems and fisheries with high levels of biodiversity upon which Wayuu indigenous communities rely for subsistence. However, climate change has affected local people’s livelihoods and dependence on fisheries has increased as a result in this area. Socio-ecological knowledge to understand the fisheries and the ecosystems of Guajira is necessary, however, acquiring such knowledge has been difficult in the past due to the remoteness and harsh environmental conditions of the peninsula that hinder corresponding scientific studies. In this study, we contacted local fishermen during a field expedition of three weeks, to collect their traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) about the local marine species, particularly of sea turtles, as well as the fisheries characteristics in eastern Guajira. Fishing practices in eastern Guajira were artisanal, for subsistence, from small wooden or fiberglass vessels. The types of fishing gear varied, the most common of which were chinchorros and entanglement nets. Catch included diverse taxonomic groups such as finned fish, cartilaginous fish, sea turtles and crustaceans. Four sea turtle species occurred at eastern Guajira, the most common of which is the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas. The sea turtles were mostly juveniles and subadults of both sexes, present year-round and with a peak in the months of May through September. After confirming the accuracy of collected TEK through field observations, we concluded these findings add knowledge to and can support fisheries and biodiversity management in Guajira, particularly in the face of regional climate-imposed challenges to human communities and marine ecosystems.

ПРОБЛЕМЫ ПРОДВИЖЕНИЯ МУЗЕЙНОЙ И ШКОЛЬНОЙ ГЕОЛОГИИ СРЕДИ УЧАЩИХСЯ СТАРШИХ КЛАССОВ

Results of the 5-year geological experimental course at school are considered. Sources and qualification of workers from Geological Department at National Science Nature Museum of National Academy of Sciences were used for teaching. The museum space was used as a place for direct understanding and study of an examined geological sample. The course included theory, laboratory and field practice, academic competition and quizzes The dynamics of knowledge changes for learners was established. Some of them chose geology as their future scientific direction after the course. Problems of teaching were noticed to be connected with the lack of motivation among students. The tendency was observed both in obtaining of profound knowledge and in learning of geology in general. The key method of the problem’s solution is achieving of ultimate dynamic in lessons It can be realized by 1) active using of laboratory possibilities at museums and academic institutions; 2) work with rock templates\minerals collections; 3) field or rocks expeditions; 4) organizations of competitions; 5) contact with parents of learners. The obtained statistical and methodical material can become a basis for next similar experiments at schools.

&lt;strong&gt;Verbenaceae in Espírito Santo, Brazil: richness, patterns of geographic distribution and conservation&lt;/strong&gt;

Verbenaceae is represented in Brazil by 15 genera and ca. 290 species, with most of its richness in the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest domains. The state of Espírito Santo has an area of 46,184.1 km2, wholly embedded in the Atlantic Forest. Nonetheless, due to the intense environmental degradation in the state, only 10.5% of its original vegetation remains. The present study is part of the “Flora do estado do Espírito Santo” project and aims to provide a taxonomic treatment to Verbenaceae in the state, as well as to analyze its distribution patterns, together with preliminary conservation assessments for each species. It is based on morphological analysis of herbaria collections, field expeditions, and literature compilation. Distribution maps were made for each species, while the preliminary conservation assessments followed the criteria proposed by the IUCN. Verbenaceae is represented in the state of Espírito Santo by 31 species arranged in 11 genera: Aloysia (2 spp.), Bouchea (1 sp.). Casselia (1 sp.), Citharexylum (1 sp.), Glandularia (1 sp.), Lantana (10 spp.), Lippia (4 spp.), Petrea (1 sp.), Priva (2 spp.), Stachytarpheta (6 spp.) and Verbena (2 spp.). Eight species occurring in Espírito Santo are threatened with extinction. Three new records are verified, including species of the genus Lantana. The dense rainforest, which covers most of the state’s territory, presents the most significant number of species (20 spp.), followed by pioneer vegetations (12 spp.), seasonal semideciduous forests (11 spp.), inselbergs (8 spp.), and ecological refuges (2 spp.). The main richness centers for Verbenaceae in the state of Espírito Santo are the municipalities of Linhares, Santa Teresa, Vitória, Vila Velha, and Guarapari in this order. In contrast, the family is noticeably little represented in the northern region of the state, as well as near its borders, where the forest remnants are highly fragmented and scattered. The current results contribute to the taxonomic and biogeographic knowledge of Verbenaceae, to the creation of conservation strategies for threatened species in the State of sspírito Santo, and reinforce the need of fieldwork in several areas of the state.

Diatoms from small ponds and terrestrial habitats in Deserta Grande Island (Madeira Archipelago).

BackgroundFreshwater diversity, and diatoms in particular, from Desertas Islands (Madeira Archipelago, Portugal) is poorly known, although the Islands are protected and became a Natural Reserve in 1995. During two field expeditions in 2013 and 2014 to Deserta Grande Island, several freshwater and terrestrial habitats were sampled. The analysis of these samples aims to contribute to the biodiversity assessment of the freshwater biota present in Deserta Grande Island. Here, we present the diatom diversity in Deserta Grande Island resulting from that survey. This study contributes to improve the knowledge of Madeira Archipelago freshwater diversity, particularly in the Desertas sub-archipelago.New informationTo our knowledge, we present the first diatom data for the Desertas sub-archipelago. This work resulted in a list of 60 diatom taxa for Deserta Grande, from which 57 were identified to species level. From the 60 new records for Desertas sub-archipelago, 30 of them were also new records for Madeira Archipelago. Several specimens could not be assigned to a known species and may be new diatom species not yet described.

Survey of the vascular plants of Alert (Ellesmere Island, Canada), a polar desert at the northern tip of the Americas

Long-term monitoring is critical to guide conservation strategies and assess the impacts of climatic changes and anthropogenic activities. In High Arctic ecosystems, information on distribution and population trends of plants is dramatically lacking. During two field expeditions in 2018 and 2019, we conducted a systematic floristic survey together with opportunistic collecting in the polar desert surrounding Alert (Nunavut, Canada) to update past vascular plant inventories. We recorded 58 species, of which 54 species were recorded over the last seven decades, and four species that are additions to the local flora (Draba pauciflora R. Brown, Festuca edlundiae S.G. Aiken, Consaul, &amp;amp; Lefkovitch, Festuca hyperborea Holmen ex Frederiksen, and &amp;times;Pucciphippsia vacillans (T. Fries) Tzvelev). With the addition of 19 species that were previously reported but not found in our survey, we estimate the species richness in the study area at 77 species.

PROTECTED AREAS AND NATURAL LANDSCAPES – AN ESSENTIAL FACTOR FOR SUSTANABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ECOTURISM IN MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS

Development of ecotourism requires providing conditions for creating reserves, national parks and other protected areas, which are the main objects of ecotourism of nowadays in Georgia. At present the country counts 90 different statuses of protected areas. Preserving them in their natural form and using their potential for ecotourism is of high significance nowadays. There is a tight relation between tourism and environment. Unaffected nature provides adequate quality of life for local tourists, whereas for foreign travelers it is an incentive to visit Georgia to see the natural monuments of the country. The paper shows the significance of protected areas in the development of ecotourism in Georgia on the example of two mountainous regions – Guria and Racha. The work considers a scientifically corroborated hypothesis that there is a great potential of transforming the first newly formed protected area in Guria – Pontine Oak Reserve and the high quality landscapes (mixed and dark-coniferous forests and sub-alpine meadows) on the territory of adjacent (4 km distance) resort Bakhmaro and its vicinities into national park in the future. The work shows that against the background of planned protected areas, there is a resource potential in Racha, which will enable to create a category of protected areas in the near future in the region. It, in its turn, will provide improvement of social-economic conditions of the region. For the fulfillment of the work we used the material of field expeditions and observations carried out in 2009-2016 in resort Bakhmaro and its vicinities and in 2019 in Racha.

THE NATURAL RESOURCES POTENTIAL AND PECULARITIES OF THEIR EXPLOITATION IN MOUTAINOUS REGIONS (THE CASE OF KVEMO RACHA, GEORGIA)

To reveal natural resources of a region it is causally necessary to reveal and describe certain landscapes as far as they are means of manifesting natural resources. Besides they are subject of study of land management. It is important to identify resource potential and current state of landscapes and each of their components. Landscapes occupy certain areas which are characterized with certain natural conditions and, obviously, different natural potential. To study the above issues, we selected mountainous region of Kvemo Racha (Ambrolauri Municipality of Georgia). For the studies, together with literary material and different sources, we used cartographic material, the landscape maps (1970, 1983) and the topographic map (scale; 1:50000) of Georgia and Transcaucasia and the observation materials of the field expedition made in 2019 in Kvemo Racha. We constructed a large-scale landscape map for Kvemo Racha (Ambrolauri Municipality) by GIS (geographic information system) technology. The work describes individual natural components of landscapes and resource potential of the distinguished landscapes. The data on mineral resources, climate and agro-climate, soil and forest resources are given in the table and diagrams. Among the landscapes distinguished as a result of comprehensive studies, the landscapes in the Racha Depression on the right and left banks of the river Rioni have especially great potential. These landscapes are located on either sides of the Rioni river gorge, though the landscape on the right bank of the river is especially distinguished. This is Racha Depression with a synclinal river gorge, river terraces, juts at some places, humus-carbonate soils. It is a specific micro-zone on the southern slope of the Lechkhumi Ridge (450-750 m above sea level), with unique vine species (Aleksandrouli, Mujuretuli, Shavi (black) Kapistoni), which are used to produce naturally sweet and semisweet “Khvanchkara” type red wines known world-wide. The wealth of Racha – forest landscapes are also noteworthy as some of them have industrial, others have recreational and ecological resources and are of high significance for preserving the biodiversity in the region.

Quantitative and qualitative assessment of collector-drainage waters in Aral Sea Basin: trends in Jizzakh region, Republic of Uzbekistan

Reintroduction of highly mineralized Collector-Drainage Waters (CDW) enhances the salinity of inland waterbodies and limits water suitability for downstream users. Detailed quantitative and qualitative research based on the inter-annual and multiyear generation trends of CDW in Central Asia could help to improve the irrigation system for agriculture and furthermore in determining opportunities for reutilization and biodiversity protection. This is the first long-term research designed to study the discharge, salinity, and ionic composition of CDW in the Jizzakh region (Uzbekistan). A database of field measurements of salinity gathered during the field expeditions from 2000 to 2017 was used in the study. Spring season showed highest CDW discharge where April showed maximum while lowermost was recorded for summers, especially during August. All main collectors showed continuous increments in salinity over the last two decades. This was neither in correlation with CDW discharge nor salinity changes from the irrigation water source (Syrdarya river). A considerable increase of collectors’ salinity within the range of 18%–37% was observed from upstream to downstream. The highest salinity values were observed during spring and lowest for summer with even lesser degree for the winter season. Among anions, sulfates were predominant followed by chlorides and bicarbonates; among cations, sodium was predominant followed by calcium and magnesium, which is different from the ionic composition of the water source. The study revealed that increased CDW discharge has not always resulted in low salinity and that high water years have not always caused a decline in CDW salinity showing that CDW discharge and salinity had differential dependence on each other.

The “Frozen, Darkened Soul” Rises into Space: Travels in Siberia and the Plight of Life on Earth

Starting in 2006, the author joined and then led field expeditions to central Siberia in search of answers to the greatest murder mystery in the history of Earth: the end-Permian extinction. The rocks that yielded answers were the same kinds of volcanic lavas that can be seen at night on the Moon, or in photos of Mars or Venus. The unyielding Russian engineering that owns the longevity record on the surface of Venus is now used to launch cosmonauts and astronauts from the other end of those same Siberian steppes. Not the data—not the years nor the numbers nor the temperature—but art, as Solzhenitsyn explained, is the only way to reach the heart and soften our pace as we move into another age of space exploration, this time as humans, the author hopes, and not as nations.

Geobotanical indication of flooding and salinization of lands the Volga region and Western Kazakhstan

In order to study the spatial distribution of biological and ecological patterns on the territory of the Volga region and Western Kazakhstan, geobotanical indication of flooding and salinization of the lands these regions was carried out. Geobotanical indication is used in the study, assessment, mapping and monitoring of territorial complexes and their components and is based on the analysis of the relationships of the geographical envelope as a whole. The article is the result of many years of interdisciplinary research. It is based both on the data obtained by the authors as a result of agro-landscape and ecological zoning and in the course of field expedition research, and on the analysis of long-term series of statistical information and literature sources. Intensive economic activity that requires the use of large amounts water resources, against the background of modern climate changes, leads to waterlogging in large areas. The weakening or termination of economic activity, the decrease in the volume of water resources used under certain conditions leads to the spread of land salinization. Flooding and sal-inization of arid lands near reservoirs, channels, reclamation facilities, functioning and abandoned irrigation fields, etc. occupy significant areas and are of great importance as environmental problems in the Volga region and Western Kazakhstan. The most dynamic and fast-responding biotic component of ecosystems to the occurrence of flooding and salinization is vegetation.

The Plants associated with aquatic and marshy environments in the state of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil

We present a list of aquatic and wetland plant species from the state of Paraíba, Brazil, based on the collections deposited in national and international herbaria. We identified 290 species belonging to 61 families. The checklist includes habit, localities of the collections in the state of Paraíba, and geographic distribution of each species. The amphibious habit was the most prevalent and the Sertão (semiarid inland region) was the region with the greatest collection effort. New occurrences have been registered for the state (14 species). Although our data reveal a high plant richness, we relate this richness to increased field expeditions.

Spectral characterization, radiative forcing and pigment content of coastal Antarctic snow algae: approaches to spectrally discriminate red and green communities and their impact on snowmelt

Abstract. Here, we present radiative forcing (RF) estimates by snow algae in the Antarctic Peninsula (AP) region from multi-year measurements of solar radiation and ground-based hyperspectral characterization of red and green snow algae collected during a brief field expedition in austral summer 2018. Our analysis includes pigment content from samples at three bloom sites. Algal biomass in the snow and albedo reduction are well-correlated across the visible spectrum. Relative to clean snow, visibly green patches reduce snow albedo by ∼40 % and red patches by ∼20 %. However, red communities absorb considerably more light per milligram of pigment compared to green communities, particularly in green wavelengths. Based on our study results, it should be possible to differentiate red and green algae using Sentinel-2 bands in blue, green and red wavelengths. Instantaneous RF averages were double for green (180 W m−2) vs. red communities (88 W m−2), with a maximum of 228 W m−2. Based on multi-year solar radiation measurements at Palmer Station, this translated to a mean daily RF of ∼26 W m−2 (green) and ∼13 W m−2 (red) during peak growing season – on par with midlatitude dust attributions capable of advancing snowmelt. This results in ∼2522 m3 of snow melted by green-colored algae and ∼1218 m3 of snow melted by red-colored algae annually over the summer, suggesting snow algae play a significant role in snowmelt in the AP regions where they occur. We suggest impacts of RF by snow algae on snowmelt be accounted for in future estimates of Antarctic ice-free expansion in the AP region.

First Reports of Vivipary in Neotropical Melastomataceae

Premise of research. We present here the first reports of vivipary in Neotropical Melastomataceae and remark on the evolutionary relationships among the three lineages that share this feature.Methodology. The observational data were gathered during field expeditions and from herbaria collections. These data were then plotted onto a phylogeny developed for the Melastomataceae in a previous study.Pivotal results. Vivipary is reported in six species belonging to three genera and three tribes of Melastomataceae. These species have convergent characters, such as an herbaceous habit and capsular fruits, and inhabit similar ecological niches in shaded tropical rain forest floors.Conclusions. This record of convergent vivipary distributed among different lineages could elicit discussions regarding the role of the phenomenon in the distribution of individuals within populations as well as contribute to the knowledge of vivipary in flowering plants.

Project "Digital Cultural and Historical Heritage of Plovdiv Municipality" - Problems and Solutions?

The purpose of this article is to study and analyze the results of the project "Digital Cultural аnd Historical Heritage оf Plovdiv Municipality". A main part is the formulation of the problems during and after the project and the possible solutions. An important element of the study is the realization of a field expedition in the Roma neighbourhoods in Plovdiv and summarizing the results from it. All of this is a contribution to and experience in the field of digitization of cultural and historical heritage in the museums and galleries (following the example of Plovdiv Municipality). The basis of the study is the website www.digital.plovdiv.bg, the participants in the project and the specific field expedition. More than 50,000 movable cultural properties have been digitized. Part of the immovable properties of the city, as well as the intangible cultural heritage of the Roma are added to them. Keywords: Digitization, Cultural and Historical Heritage, Plovdiv, Museums, Roma, Field Expedition

СОЛЬ В ТРАДИЦИЯХ И ОБРЯДАХ БАШКИР

The article is based on materials from the authors’ field expeditions and folklore sources, and reveals the significance of the most important mineral – salt – in the traditional culture of the Bashkirs. The Bashkirs have long used salt from the Iletsk deposit, which was located on the patrimonial lands of the Bashkirs; until the middle of the 18th century they used it for free, for which they paid yasak to the treasury. The authors consider the everyday, pharmacological, religious aspects of the use of salt among the Bashkirs. A special perception of salt was well reflected in the Bashkir vocabulary, in which there are many stable expressions with the word «тоҙ» (bash. 'salt'), for example: «тоҙһоҙ» ('meaningless', literally «unsalted»), «тоҙ күҙ» ('meaningless look, eyes', literally «salt eyes»), «тоҙ һипкән кеүек» ('attractive', literally «like sprinkled with salt»), «һаҡы тоҙло» («very expensive in price», literally «salty price»).