Field Botanists Research Articles

Voices from the Roof of the World

Glacier-based mountain water systems are the water towers of the world, and billions are dependent on the vital services they provide. In an effort to better understand the effects of climate change on the glaciers of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya, National Geographic and Tribhuvan University conducted a multidisciplinary expedition to Mount Everest. These are the voices from that journey.

The importance of genetic diversity for the translocation of eight threatened plant species into the wild

Considering ongoing biodiversity losses, translocations of threatened plant species into the wild has become a common conservation technique although they are considered laborious, expensive and rarely successful. It is broadly accepted that the choice of suitable translocation sites and the translocation of many individuals increase their success. Moreover, high genetic diversity among introduced plants is suggested to be important but has been rarely assessed for populations of threatened species. Here, we tested whether higher genetic diversity generally increases early establishment of threatened plant species after a translocation. We translocated plantlets of eight rare and threatened species of Switzerland at one apparently suitable site per species. We planted 40 to 312 plants per site at two levels of genetic diversity, monoculture plots with offspring of single seed families per species, and mixture plots with offspring of several seed families per species. In the early translocation stages, plots with individuals of several seed families had a higher survival than plots with individuals of only one seed family, however, the positive effect of diversity disappeared with time. Our study suggests that a high genetic diversity is important at least for the short-term survival of translocated populations of threatened plant species. Translocations should therefore always aim to maximise genetic diversity in founder populations. Experimental approaches as the one we present here are important tools to realise long-term translocation experiments that are needed to enhance our understanding of the underlying factors responsible for success or failure of translocations of threatened plant species. We therefore recommend close collaborations between experimental plant ecologists, field botanists and conservation practitioners in future translocations of threatened species.

Mentha cervina (Lamiaceae), an emergent aquatic alien species naturalising at South Gare, North-East Yorkshire

There is an increasing interest in recording early colonisation of organisms when studying changes in distribution ranges induced by climate change. Here, I describe one population of Mentha cervina L. (Hart’s pennyroyal), naturalising in the wild at South Gare, v.c.62 North-east Yorkshire. Two other populations have been reported in Britain and none are known from Ireland. Of the three populations ever reported from the wild in Britain, two are still extant. It is unclear what vectors disperse M. cervina in Britain and whether the species is becoming increasingly naturalised or not. Diagnostic characters: digitate bracteoles and four calyx teeth, are provided to facilitate the recording of this mint species by field botanists.

Notes on the morphology, ecology and distribution of Quisqualis parviflora (Combretaceae)

Background: Quisqualis parviflora Gerrard ex. Sond. is endemic to the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces, South Africa. The species’ distribution has previously been thought to extend to Mpumalanga and the KwaZulu-Natal midlands. Most published distributions include Maputaland in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, and it has been suggested that the species may occur in Mozambique. Sterile material of several Combretum Loefl. lianas may be confused with Q. parviflora.Although the species may be locally common, it has never been collected in fruit. Published fruit descriptions are based on erroneously identified material.Objectives: The aim of this study was to supply a revised distribution range, to describe the fruit of Q. parviflora and to present notes on the phenology and ecology of the species.Method: Herbarium specimens of Q. parviflora, and similar taxa, were examined in various herbaria. Fieldwork was undertaken, and other active field botanists were consulted.Results: Quisqualis parviflora is almost entirely restricted to scarp forest between Port St. Johns in the Eastern Cape and Eshowe in KwaZulu-Natal. Although the species may be locally common, it has only been collected from a few localities. The current dispersal ability of the species may be extremely limited, which could have long-term conservation implications.Samaras are described, and notes are provided on the phenology and ecology of the species.Conclusion: Although not currently threatened, the long-term prospects of Q. parviflora may be less secure. Proposed forest management interventions like liana thinning should not be undertaken without more information.

Dacar Cas/Somali Red Aloe: a new species of Aloe (Asphodelaceae) from Somaliland.

A new species of Aloe (Asphodelaceae) is described from Somaliland. It differs from other species in forming large clumps and in having sap that is initially yellow but quickly turns bright red and then dark red or reddish-brown, paniculate red-flowered inflorescences and uniformly coloured leaves with red teeth. Its recognition raises the number of species known from the combined area of Somaliland and Somalia s.s. from 31 to 36. A map portraying species density of Aloe by country, as that genus is now interpreted, shows that Aloe has its highest density on islands in the Indian Ocean but that, within Africa, the greatest density is in countries along the eastern highlands. The data also reinforce the importance of field botanists in determining a country’s known plant diversity.

Cannabis Systematics at the Levels of Family, Genus, and Species.

New concepts are reviewed in Cannabis systematics, including phylogenetics and nomenclature. The family Cannabaceae now includes Cannabis, Humulus, and eight genera formerly in the Celtidaceae. Grouping Cannabis, Humulus, and Celtis actually goes back 250 years. Print fossil of the extinct genus Dorofeevia (=Humularia) reveals that Cannabis lost a sibling perhaps 20 million years ago (mya). Cannabis print fossils are rare (n=3 worldwide), making it difficult to determine when and where she evolved. A molecular clock analysis with chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) suggests Cannabis and Humulus diverged 27.8 mya. Microfossil (fossil pollen) data point to a center of origin in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. Fossil pollen indicates that Cannabis dispersed to Europe by 1.8–1.2 mya. Mapping pollen distribution over time suggests that European Cannabis went through repeated genetic bottlenecks, when the population shrank during range contractions. Genetic drift in this population likely initiated allopatric differences between European Cannabis sativa (cannabidiol [CBD]>Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) and Asian Cannabis indica (THC>CBD). DNA barcode analysis supports the separation of these taxa at a subspecies level, and recognizing the formal nomenclature of C. sativa subsp. sativa and C. sativa subsp. indica. Herbarium specimens reveal that field botanists during the 18th–20th centuries applied these names to their collections rather capriciously. This may have skewed taxonomic determinations by Vavilov and Schultes, ultimately giving rise to today's vernacular taxonomy of “Sativa” and “Indica,” which totally misaligns with formal C. sativa and C. indica. Ubiquitous interbreeding and hybridization of “Sativa” and “Indica” has rendered their distinctions almost meaningless.

Flower development of Goniorrhachis marginata reveals new insights into the evolution of the florally diverse detarioid legumes.

The study of floral morphology and ontogeny and the re-investigation of existing data help to uncover potential synapomorphic characters and foster our understanding of phylogenetic relationships that rely primarily on molecular analyses. Goniorrhachis marginata is a monotypic caesalpinioid legume (Leguminosae) that shows some interesting floral features, such as a long hypanthium and regular Rosaceae-like flowers. We studied the ontogeny and morphology of the flowers in detail and present our results in a broad phylogenetic context. Flower buds were collected in the field, fixed in 70% ethanol and investigated using scanning electron microscopy. Older buds in spirit were carefully opened to investigate the direction of style bending. Characters of the style from 131 taxa from the main legume lineages were analysed and mapped on a Bayesian molecular phylogeny. The tetramerous calyx is the result of complete loss of one sepal. The formation of the radially symmetrical corolla starts in a typical caesalpinioid pattern with the adaxial petal innermost (ascending aestivation). The young style bends in the abaxial direction, which is a character found exclusively in all studied detarioid legumes and therefore a newly described synapomorphy for the clade. We show that investigation of unstudied taxa and reinvestigation of published data can uncover new, previously overlooked and important characters. Curvature of the style can be detected in young buds with a hand lens and therefore is an important character for field botanists. Our study reveals the importance of including poorly studied and/or phylogenetically enigmatic taxa in molecular phylogenies and in detailed morphological and ontogenetic analyses.

Cryptic speciation in allotetraploids: Lessons from the Botrychium matricariifolium complex.

Cryptic species are a challenge for botanists and taxonomists. To improve species delineation in the genus Botrychium (Ophioglossaceae), which includes multiple instances of allotetraploid speciation, we examined a cryptic species complex using genetics and morphology. We sampled species in the B. matricariifolium complex, concentrating on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and including multiple proposed morphospecies. We analyzed over 1500 samples using 10 enzyme systems, measured 42 quantitative and qualitative morphological characters for over 650 individuals, and analyzed 145 samples using AFLPs. We tested for diagnostic enzymes in the morphospecies and calculated the correlation between morphological and genetic distances to determine whether putatively distinct morphotypes warrant taxonomic recognition. Allozyme allelic variation corresponded loosely to some morphotypes of B. matricariifolium, but with lower genetic distinction among them than found between B. matricariifolium and B. michiganense. Botrychium michiganense contains unique alleles, indicating a different hybrid origin from that of B. matricariifolium and supporting its status as a genetically distinct species. We showed that B. acuminatum morphology and genetics are accommodated taxonomically within B. matricariifolium; B. matricariifolium and B. michiganense likely represent hybridization events between related species; and morphotypes within B. matricariifolium likely represent repeated hybridization events between the same two parental species. These hybridizations have resulted in the array of morphotypes observed by field botanists. By helping to identify diagnostic morphological characters, genetic analyses also help us understand and resolve morphological variation observed in the field.

A revised infrageneric classification of the genus Peperomia (Piperaceae)

AbstractThe classification of species‐rich genera is one of the most challenging tasks in systematics. In this paper we present an updated infrageneric classification of the genus Peperomia (Piperaceae), one of the most species‐rich genera of plants. The classification is based on a molecular phylogeny of 190 accessions and the placement of 1340 of the 1606 currently accepted taxa within this classification. We provide the most comprehensive circumscriptions of Peperomia subgenera since the work of Dahlstedt in 1900, with five newly described subgenera. Fourteen monophyletic groups were revealed by phylogenetic reconstructions, including two newly discovered clades. Extensive field work, monitoring of representative living collections in our botanical gardens, and herbarium studies were the basis for morphological assignment of 80% of Peperomia species to the subgenera recognized and described herein. This work, in combination with the detailed descriptions of these subgenera, will aid field botanists, taxonomists, and ecologists to properly collect and identify species. Although parallel evolution of characters makes identification of species within Peperomia difficult, especially in species‐rich clades, the key to subgenera will provide a useful framework for anyone interested in this genus and will be a reference for further studies in Peperomia.

Key to the Quillworts (Isoëtes: Isoëtaceae) of the Southeastern United States

An illustrated key based on morphological, ecological and geographical characteristics is presented for the Isoëtes taxa of the Coastal Plain, Piedmont and the eastern side of the Appalachian Mountains of Alabama, District of Columbia, Delaware, southern Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, eastern Louisiana, southeastern Tennessee and eastern Virginia. The key includes 22 species, three additional subspecies/ varieties and nine sterile hybrids. It is primarily intended to serve as an investigative tool to assist field botanists engaged in conservation, floristic and ecological studies in the Southeast.

Whatever happened to Bishopanthus (Compositae, Liabeae)?

The enigmatic monospecific Bishopanthus of the tribe Liabeae (Compostiae/Asteraceae) has never been fully understood. It has not been possible to examine it in detail since it was described, because most of the type material was destroyed shortly after it arrived at the US National Herbarium, the morphology is insufficient to assign it to a subtribe, and the small amount of leaf material that remains is unsuitable for DNA extraction. A detailed description in English, image of the type specimen, photograph, and original illustration are included along with an estimation of where it was collected in the hopes that this information will encourage other field botanists who collect in northern Peru to search for it.

A Cavalcade of Field Botanists in Oklahoma - Contributors to Our Knowledge of the Flora of Oklahoma

(First two paragraphs of an amazing article.) As members of the Oklahoma Native Plant Society (ONPS) well know, Oklahoma has a tremendous diversity of vascular plants—174 families, 854 genera, and approximately 2,600 species—that reflects the ecogeographic diversity present within the state’s borders (Tyrl et al. 2008). Our knowledge of this flora is the result of contributions by numerous individuals for more than 450 years. Some simply recorded their observations of the state’s flora as they passed through; whereas, others made systematic surveys and documented their work by actually collecting plants for voucher specimens to be deposited in herbaria. These individuals and the contributions that they have made to our knowledge of the plants and vegetation of Oklahoma are the subject of this essay. Its title and concept are rooted in a presidential address given by H.I. Featherly in 1942 to the Oklahoma Academy of Science and a master’s thesis by Wanona Henson, one of his graduate students (Henson 1941; Featherly 1943). We have unabashedly adopted their approach and excerpted some of their thoughts about the state’s first field botanists in our synopses. As they did, we present our individuals more or less chronologically. Each synopsis comprises a brief biographical sketch and the botanical contribution(s) they made. When specific plants are cited, currently accepted scientific names are used unless otherwise noted. Common names are taken from Taylor and Taylor (1994), Tyrl and coworkers (2008), Folley (2011), and USDA, NRCS (2013).

English

Generally, weeds are considered as nuisances in the garden and enemies to the farmer, as there is a misconception that they are useless. Many of the herbs used in Indian traditional medicine and tribal medicine are considered weeds by agriculturists and field botanists (for example, Phyllanthus amarus L., Eclipta alba L.,Centella asiatica (L.) etc.). Even though many of these weeds have high ethnopharmacological importance, they are being destroyed and there is a lack of scientific knowledge and guidance. In the Nilgiris many medicinally valuable weeds like Achyranthes bidentata Blume., Artemisia nilagirica Clarke., Centella asiaticaL., are very prominent having good therapeutic values like diuretic, antimalarial and brain tonic. The main aim of this review is to expose the important pharmacodynamic and ethnomedicinal values of 50 prominent weeds belongs to 26 different families that grow wild in the Nilgiris. It is possible that some of these weeds could provide an additional income to farmers. There is increasing evidence to support that weeds are relatively high in bioactive molecules thus very important for new drug discovery. Innovative research should be encouraged and scientific workshops conducted by government bodies to communicate the medicinal value of weeds, make weeds economically important and to fill the gap between weeds, farmers and the economy.   Key words: Weeds, pharmacological importance, pharmacodynamic uses, Silybum marianum L., Artemisia parviflora Roxb.

Converting simple vegetation surveys in functional dynamics

This study assessed an integrated method for estimating the structural and functional trends of Mediterranean vegetation based on simple field characterizations. Despite considerable effort made by scientists to estimate vegetation dynamics, most methods are too complex to be applied and quantification achieved by non-specialists. We propose an alternative approach that converts simple measures such as generic vegetation cover into life forms or life traits. We used the Stochastic Dynamic Methodology, a dynamic approach based on a sequential process, to calculate the functional response to succession and anthropogenic disturbances using Raunkiaer's life form spectra. Using derived scenarios, the model was able to successfully translate functional and structural trends from simple field descriptions. The simulations demonstrate that this methodology can be used in environmental studies, particularly when specialised field botanists are not available.

Plant Taxonomy in Tropical Countries: A Plea for Urgent Resurrection

Feelings and experiences of the author over Classical Taxonomy in India during the last 4 decades is discussed. Brief history and outline of development of the subject is provided. The systematic exploratory phase of taxonomy is said to have started around the middle of 16th century and with two major events, the subject reached its peak. The first one being the development of the concept of Herbarium and second one being the introduction of the Binomial System of Nomenclature by Linnaeus in 1753. Both the events laid the firm foundation for Classical Taxonomy. But during the last few decades with the development of Bio-systematic phase, although revolutionary changes in concepts of taxonomy could be noticed, the Classical Taxonomy got completely side tracked. Discussing the current status of Taxonomy in the country, the author emphasizes the dwindling nature of the subject. Among many other causes, development of more fashionable and experimental areas of modern biology, faulty methods of teaching by untrained taxonomists in most Universities, lack of sufficient taxonomic literature and herbaria, synthetic nature of discipline of taxonomy, lack of sufficient number of practicing taxonomists and field botanists to carry out the survey and documentation of the vast diversity of the flora of India, most taxonomic journals with least or no impact factor, low citation index of Classical Taxonomists, development of computer databases and computer identification devices by non-taxonomists, molecular biologists side tracking the Classical Taxonomists in areas of biodiversity assessments, avoidance of taxonomists by modern biologists in programmes of Bioprospection, apathy towards the subject by fund giving bodies and lastly, least recognitions of Classical Taxonomists by scientific bodies are cited as prominent reasons for the decline of the subject. Although Botanical Survey of India has done a commendable job in accomplishing the tasks of Taxonomists, some how the organization has failed in generating and enthusing the required number of younger taxonomists and group specialists in the country. Worse is the case with many Universities who have, to some extent killed the subject. All these factors have collectively brought about a serious decline in the subject resulting in the acute shortage of younger generation of field botanists and taxonomists who are to shoulder the big responsibilities of inventorizing the rich biodiversity in the tropics. However, the situation is not that hopeless. The achievements of Classical Taxonomists during the last 4 decades in inventorization and documentation of the flora of the country is commendable. Today the dimensions and scope of the subject have widened beyond imagination. Floristic taxonomists are sought after by many for taking part in applied aspects such as bio-prospection, new drug discoveries, search for alternate economic plant resources, conservation of biological resources and monitoring of fragile ecosystems. The author strongly feels that taxonomy with the additional objectives and broadened scope will certainly regain its past glory and become one of the challenging disciplines of biology in the 21st century.

The past, present and future tasks of Hungarian dendrological research

Hungarian dendrological research (research of living woody plants) has more than 200 years old history; the first general work by János Keresztély Grossinger was published in 1797. Further basic works in our time yet are: Forest Botany by Lajos Fekete and Sándor Mágócsy-Dietz (1896); and the chorological work, Distribution of trees and shrubs of sylvicultural importance in the region of Hungarian State by Lajos Fekete and Tibor Blattny (1913). A few dendrologists and many botanists have helped to get better knowledge of Hungarian dendroflora. From the point of view of taxonomy, chorology and habitat - which are interested by field botanists - it can be said that knowledge is fairly heterogeneous. There are sufficient information about most of the rare (protected/endangered) woody plants (an about 50 species) and the important adventives, above all invasive trees and shrubs (an about 10 species). From these two groups beyond there are only few taxa which can be said thoroughly worked up and known (e.g. Castanea sativa, Cornus mas, Fraxinus spp., Quercus spp.). List of the dendrotaxa, hardly known in the above-mentioned point of view is rich in species that are important for forestry or horticulture (e.g. Alnus glutinosa, Acer spp., Betula pendula, Corylusavellana and most of Salix spp.), supplemented with other species (e.g. Clematis vitalba, Colutea arborescens, Lonicera xylosteum, Padus avium, Sambucus nigra, Staphylea pinnata, Viburnum spp.).Followings can be asked from our field botanists: i) look for a specialist in cases of critical dendrotaxa; ii) a circumspect identification is necessary - especially in the case of leaves - by right of great number of samples from the adequate part of shoot; iii) keep in view frequent hybridization (e.g. in the case of Betula, Crataegus, Pyrus, Tilia), and frequent appearance of hybrids (e.g. Betula × rhombifolia, Cerasus × eminens, Salix × rubens); iv) appearance of interim forms are usually typical in the cases of species classified into aggregate species (e.g. Quercus petraea agg., Qu. pubescens agg.); v) take intraspecific taxa according to various ecological demands, area, morphological differences into consideration; vi) culture variations cannot be treat as an equal with the species (e.g. Populus spp., Salix spp.); vii) natural ↔ artificial area have to be separated; viii) lend a helping hand in getting taxonomical knowledge of hardly known dendrotaxa.

Catalogue of Nonnative Vascular Plants Occurring Spontaneously in California Beyond Those Addressed in the Jepson Manual – Part II

ABSTRACT We present Part II of a catalogue documenting nonnative vascular plant taxa occurring spontaneously in California beyond those addressed in The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California (Hickman 1993). Here we document an additional 117 taxa occurring spontaneously in California that were not accounted for in Part I (Hrusa et al. 2002) or in The Jepson Manual. The catalogue was compiled from new collections by the authors and others, previously existing herbarium specimens, peer-reviewed publications, other printed reports, and direct communications with field botanists. Only reports backed by herbarium vouchers are accepted as adequately documented. Of the 117 taxa, 42 are fully or sparingly naturalized in relatively undisturbed wildland habitats, 14 are naturalized in non-wildlands (roadsides, fallow fields, croplands, other disturbed areas), 13 are tenuously established or locally persisting, 22 are weeds of greenhouse or other horticultural environments, 7 are presumed to be non-persisting c...

‘Connecticut motive’: Beatrix Farrand and the Marsh Botanic Garden of Yale University 1922–1939

Little survives today of the Marsh Botanic Garden of Yale University as it was designed and planted by Beatrix Farrand in the 1920s. But there still endures, the venerable white oak, a critical player in the dialogue that accompanied the garden's evolution. It remains standing in the center of the eight-acre garden that surrounds a turreted stone mansion at the top of science hill on Prospect Street in New Haven, its central branches rent by storms into a horizontal silhouette, which stoops and arches, still casting its cool shade across Yale afternoons. It was there, on one such Saturday afternoon, in the autumn of 1931, that a group of field botanists, members of the Connecticut Botanical Society, ‘remained to lunch under one of the great white oak trees in the grounds surrounding the Marsh gardens’ (figure 1). They had been admiring the two rare gordonia shrubs blooming in the Farnam Memorial Garden on the opposite side of Prospect Street. A year earlier, the same group had witnessed gentians from the pine barrens of New Jersey, pinks from the salt marshes, 25 varieties of aster and 35 of goldenrod, and a dozen different sunflowers: all plants indigenous to North America, raised from collected seed and ‘now in full bloom in the ordinary garden soil’ of the Marsh Botanic Garden.1

Vaderlandse weelde op de kaart gezet. Belgische botanici, wetenschappelijke ijver en nationale motieven

Andreas Stynen, Native wealth charted. Belgian botanists, scientific zeal and patriotic motivesThis article analyses the importance of patriotic motives in nineteenth-century Belgian botany, without reducing the study of indigenous plants to a vehicle of aggressive, blatantly biased chauvinism. Different forms of more subtle nationalism enabled Belgian field botanists to define their activities as a mature and internationally respected field among the natural sciences. Four different phases can be discerned. During the period of Austrian and French domination, botany was first and foremost a means to economically enrich the state, by reducing its dependence on imports. After Belgian independence (1830), striving for utility was increasingly overshadowed by a longing for completeness: field trips were fuelled by a desire to collect and chart all Belgian species. From 1860 onwards, individual species mattered less than the geobotanical regions: the national territory was discovered to offer a rich variety of landscapes. The popularity of laboratories at the end of the century threatened to dismiss field botany as merely amateurish, but an ecological approach to the national vegetation, combined with explicit pleas for the protection of Belgian’s natural wealth, provided the impetus for a new round of research. This article is part of the special issue 'Landschap, natuur en nationale identiteit'.

Patterns of floristic diversity in semi-natural coastal vegetation of Lebanon and implications for conservation

The current understanding of the status of the vegetation in Lebanon is largely derived from herbarium data and associated floristic studies produced by early 20th century field botanists. In common with other areas in the Mediterranean, the Lebanese coastline is highly threatened by unregulated development, yet current patterns of species richness along the Lebanese coastal zone are little studied. The objective of this study was to assess the floristic richness of the Lebanese coastal zone and to provide baseline information for conservation planning. For this purpose, permanent sample plots (6 m × 100 m) were established in 26 selected vegetation communities in coastal habitats. Monthly field collections of plant specimens were undertaken between October 1999 and July 2000. A total of 441 species were collected and identified. None of the recorded species are currently considered globally threatened, but two are Lebanese endemics (Matthiola crassifolia Boiss. & Gaill., Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss.). Species richness varied between communities, ranging from six species in a littoral limestone pavement community to 113 in an abandoned terrace community. The similarity between communities, based on Sorensen indices, was low and a large number of species were recorded only once. Cluster analysis showed a grouping of different communities within locations in some instances and the clustering of similar community types regardless of location in others. Species richness in riparian and littoral communities consisted mostly of habitat non-specific species. The low community similarity, patchy species distribution, and predominance of habitat non-specific species all point to the need to complement in situ conservation measures with ex situ conservation.