Ficus Indica Research Articles

Adsorption mechanism of Methylene Blue from polluted water by Opuntia ficus indica of Beni Mellal and Sidi Bou Othmane areas: A comparative study

This paper is based on the adsorption in polluted water of Methylene Blue (MB) used in the textile industry, by the cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) of the city of Beni Mellal (CBM) and that of Sidi Bou Othmane (CSB). Different analyzes are used namely: (FTIR, GTA/DTA and X-ray). The equilibrium kinetics shows that the (CSB) fixes the (MB) better than the (CBM). It should be noted that at pH=8, Qmax up to 333.33 and 263.15 mg/g for (CSB) and (CBM) are obtained. The kinetic adsorption results are best described by the expression of the pseudo-second order model (P-SO). The adsorption isotherms of (MB) by (CBM) and (CSB) are suitably described by the Langmuir model. Thermodynamic analysis to show that the adsorption of MB on the cactus of Beni Mellal and Sidi Bou Othmane is an exothermic process and spontaneous.

BIOMASS AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION ESTIMATION OF TREE SPECIES IN PUNIT VAN, GANDHINAGAR

The most significant greenhouse gas on earth is carbon dioxide, which both absorbs and radiates heat. Earth’s temperature is increasing because of greenhouse gases and other human activities. The process of removing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. It is the only way to lessen atmospheric carbon dioxide in an effort to slow down the rate of climate change. The chosen study area for the research work is PUNIT VAN, located in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. Gandhinagar city is also known as Green city, because of the diversity in vegetation and rich biodiversity. The study was conducted with quadrate random sampling method. There were 20 quadrates taken of 10 m2. Total area of Punit van is 14.70 hectare. In the research, 27 species, including 317 individuals have been recorded in Punit Van. The field data of the trees analyzed using the random sampling of quadrate method, which shows that the dominant tree species in each quadrate is Azardirachta indica as total of 68 tree species in 13 quadrates. While the least dominant species found in only 1 quadrate were Ailanthus excelsa Roxb., Dalbergia latifolia, Ficus benghalensis, Holopteria integrifolia, Madhuca longifolia, Mangifera indica, Milletia peguensis, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Saraca asoca, Strychnos nux-vomica with the total number of species 1, 1, 4, 5, 7, 6, 3, 6, 13, 7 respectively. Total 41.5 tones carbon sequestered in a hectare.

Preliminary Phytochemical Screening of Aqueous Extract of Ficus Bengalensis Leaf Bud

Biologically active compounds present in plants are called phytochemicals. Phytochemicals are produced by plants as part of their defense mechanisms against various stresses, such as pathogens, predators, or environmental factors. These can be derived from barks, leaves, flowers, roots, fruits and a seed, knowledge of the chemical constituents of plants is desirable because they are used as direct sources of medicinal agent and such information will be valuable for synthesis of complex chemical substances. Vata (Ficus bengalensis) is such a herbal drug which is widely available and is having many mentioning in the classics for its effectiveness in Stree Vandhyatwa. Its vegetative buds are used in the treatment of Vandhyatwa. This paper mainly deals with the collection of leaf bud of Ficus bengalensis, and qualitative screening of the aqueous extract for the available phytochemicals. The extract of leaf bud was tested for the presence of tannins, flavonoids, phenols, glycosides, proteins, saponins and steroids by using standard protocols.

Synergetic effect of graphene particles on novel biomass–based Ficus benghalensis aerial root/flax fiber–reinforced hybrid epoxy composites for structural application

Synergetic effect of graphene particles on novel biomass–based Ficus benghalensis aerial root/flax fiber–reinforced hybrid epoxy composites for structural application

Roost Preference in Three Species of Pteropodid Bats in Tirunelveli and Tenkasi, Tamilnadu, South India

Roost preference, roosting ecology and roost resource partitioning of megachiropteran bats in the plains of Tirunelveli and Tenkasi districts of Tamilnadu, South India, were investigated from January 2021 to December 2022. Three species of megachiropterans bats namely Pteropus medius, Cynopterus sphinx and Rosettus leschanaulti were recorded in the study area. P. medius roosts in open foliage on trees like Terminalia arjuna (46.90%), Samanea saman (13.53%), Ficus religiosa (12.09%), Ficus benghalensis (5.27%), Bassia latifolia (5.04%), Tamarindus indica (4.89%), Sygium cumini (4.71%), Manjifera Indica (2.32%), Thespesia populnea (1.93%), Pongamia pinnata (1.38%), Pithecellobium dulce (0.90%), Albizia lebbeck (0.74%), and Azadirachta indica (0.23%). C. sphinx roosts in Borassus flabellifer (68.55%), Polyalthia longifolia (25.90%) and Pritchardia pacifica (5.54%). Generally, the native trees are preferred by these bats as the favorite roost. R. leschanaulti prefers temples (56.52%), water wells (18.53%), stone buildings (17.16%) and abandoned houses (7.78%). Diversity measures with regard to Margalef index, Berger Parker index and Evenness index, comparatively; higher values were reported in C. sphinx (9.433), R. leschanaulti (0.270) and C. sphinx (0.925) respectively. The distribution pattern and roost preference of megachiropteran bats reveal that these bat species serve as bio-indicator of the agricultural landscape in the wetland ecosystem. It is evident that these three symbiotic bat species exhibit roost preference, and roost resources partitioning in the study area.

Bioflocculants as Alternative to Synthetic Polymers to Enhance Wastewater Sludge Dewaterability: A Review

The dewatering process reduces the water quantity in sludge, allowing the decrease in its volume, which facilitates its storage, transport, stabilization, and improves the post-treatment efficiency. Chemical polymers including aluminum sulphate and polyaluminum chloride were applied as flocculants in the conditioning process in order to prepare sludge for dewatering. However, these synthetic polymers may cause risks for human health, and should be substituted with ecofriendly and safe materials. These materials include plant-based flocculants, animal-based flocculants, and microbial-based flocculants. Sludge dewaterability was evaluated by considering many parameters, such as moisture content (MC), dry solids (DS), specific resistance to filtration (SRF), capillary suction time (CST), and sludge volume index (SVI). The use of microorganisms for sludge dewatering is an available option, since many strains (R. erythropolis, A. ferrooxidans, P. mirabilis, T. flavus, etc.) demonstrated their ability to produce polymers useful for dewatering sludge from various origins (chemically treated primary sludge, activated sludge, anaerobically digested sludge, etc.). For plant-based flocculants, only okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), cactus (Opuntia ficus Indica), moringa (M. oleifera), and aloe (A. vera) plants are examined for sludge dewatering. Compared to synthetic polymers, plant-based flocculants showed a viable alternative to chemicals and a step forward in green sludge treatment technology. Among the animal-based flocculants, chitosan and aminated chitosan were able to reduce the SRF (SRF reduction rate > 80%) of the anaerobically digested sludge. A new strategy using methylated hemoglobin also showed a significant enhancement in cake solid content of sludge (47%) and a decrease in sludge bound water content of 17.30%. Generally, extensive investigations are needed to explore and optimize all the related parameters (operating conditions, preparation procedure, production cost, etc.) and to choose the appropriate materials for large-scale application.

Green solid-liquid extraction of cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) cladode dietary fibers. I- optimization, pilot-scale production, and characterization

In this research work, an optimization of an environment friendly extraction method of cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) cladode dietary fibers was conducted. For this purpose, a central composite experimental design with two factors (temperature and time) and five levels was established. The basic objective of this optimization was to maximize fiber yield using hot water as an extraction eco-solvent. The optimum extraction time (330 min) and temperature (100 °C) were determined with a constant medium agitation rate. Additionally, this study also aimed at establishing the validation of the statistical model to carry out the extrapolation of the extraction process at the pilot scale. The fibers extracted at the pilot scale showed yields (45.2 ± 0.01%) in agreement with those obtained through the optimization and validation lab-scale steps (44.97 ± 0.02). Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis were conducted to investigate the structure and microstructure of pilot scale-produced fibers. FTIR spectrum and XRD pattern were typical to lignocellulosic fibers results. Sharp and thin peaks characteristic of cellulose were detected. Pure and crystallized phases were recorded with a 45% crystallinity index. SEM analysis presented elongated and organized cells with a uniform structure comparable to cellulosic fibers microstructure.

Potential of Opuntia Ficus-Indica Cladodes In M’sila (North ALGERIA) as feed for ruminants: chemical composition and in vitro assessment

ABSTRACT The main objective of the present study was to investigate a strategy to bioconverte spineless cactus Opuntia Ficus-Indica (O. ficus indica) Cladodes, Medicago sativa L. (M. sativa) and barley straw (H. vulgare) based on their chemical composition, in vitro digestibility and fermentation parameters. The CP ranged from 51.41 to 156.09 g/kg DM, which was especially high within M. sativa and low in H. vulgare. O. ficus indica had the highest values in free condensed tannins. The most digestible plant sample was that from M. sativa and O.ficus indica. The maximum in vitro gas production was recorded with M. sativa and H. vulgare. The same trend was observed with the total gas production (144 h). Based on the results, it can be concluded that O. ficus indica could replace common plant species, especially in the arid and semi-arid areas in which the livestock production section frequently suffers low efficiency and big losses.

In vitro Antibacterial and in silico Evaluation of Ficus benghalensis Methanolic Bark Extract, as Potential Anti-MRSA Agent

Abstract: Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), known to be highly resistant bacterium, leading to dreadful infections with limited treatment options. Objectives: The current study mainly focused to investigate the anti-staphylococcal activity of Ficus benghalensis methanolic bark (FBMB) extract against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Materials and Methods: The assessment of Ficus benghalensis methanolic bark (FBMB) extract was performed by agar well diffusion method and broth dilution method. Further, the pathogenic factors such as formation of biofilm, hemolysis, adhesion and staphyloxanthin production were evaluated to confirm antibiofilm and anti-adhesion activity. Cytoplasmic leakage analysis was also carried out to confirm the antibacterial activity of the extract. Results: From agar well diffusion method, it was observed that even at low dosage (1.6 mg/ml) showed the zone of inhibition which is significantly as dose dependent manner. 50 mg/ml extract showed Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 100 mg/ml extract showed minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The inhibitory activity of extracts was observed information of biofilm, hemolytic activity and production of staphyloxanthin. Oxidative survival resulted in decreased colonies of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and cytoplasmic leakage elevation was observed with the treatment. Further, in silico analysis also confirms the binding and interaction of the active molecules of FBMB extract, such as Beta-sitosterol, Lupeol Acetate and Alpha-amyrin against the MSCRAMMs family of MRSA using AutoDock Vina, Accelrys BIOVIA and pyMol tools and furthermore these molecules have better pharmacokinetic profile as based on Lipinski's rule of five violation. Conclusion: Ficus benghalensis methanolic bark extract, can be used as an drug candidate for antibiotic-resistant infection caused by Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Keywords: MRSA, Ficus benghalensis, Bark extract, Anti-biofilm, Anti-virulence, Anti-bacterial, Membrane stability, in silico.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of some local plant extracts in improving the quality of unsafe water consumed in developing countries

This study highlights the possibility of using plant extracts as biocoagulants to replace aluminum sulfate in the process of raw water potabilization. For this purpose, nine plants were identified by an investigation and their effectiveness was evaluated in the laboratory by coagulation/flocculation on surface waters. Out of the nine plants identified, five extracts showed a very low coagulant activity in the reduction of water samples turbidity (maximum abatement of 1.03%): These were the seeds of Acacia nilotica, Adansonia digitata, Balanites aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica and leaves of Capparis corymbosa. Two extracts showed an average activity, namely Aloe vera sap (20.7%) and Opuntia ficus indica sap (32.25%). Two other extracts which are Moringa oleifera seeds and Boscia senegelensis seeds, showed a very good activity (84.83% and 82.97%, respectively after 1 h of decantation). By fixing the optimal concentration of 1 g/L for the treatment with Moringa oleifera seeds, a water of 4.6 NTU was obtained after 2 h of decantation, which was about 98% of abatement. The treatment with Boscia senegelensis seeds also allowed us to obtain for 2.5 g/L a water of 4.9 NTU after 2 h of decantation. The combined action of Moringa and Boscia biocoagulants, and cactus and Aloe mucilages reduced the decanting time to 15 min. These two treatments induced a slight increase of the minerals initially present in the water and a reduction of almost 99% of the pathogenic microorganisms. Thus, Boscia senegelensis and Moringa oleifera seeds appear as very effective biocoagulants compared to aluminum sulfate, hence they constitute an alternative to the lack of access to drinking water especially for developing countries.

Synthesis and characterization of phytochemical fabricated Ag doped ZnO nanoparticles with Ficus benghalensis and their enhanced antibacterial and photocatalytic applications

The use of various plant materials for the bio synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles follows the principles of green chemistry since it minimizes the amount of chemicals used. In the present work, ZnO and Ag doped ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized utilizing aqueous leaf extract of Ficus benghalensis. The aqueous leaf extract was screened qualitatively for the presence of chemical constituents. The nanoparticles ZnO, green modified ZnO and Ag doped ZnO were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), FT-IR, EDAX and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The optical properties were studied using UV-Vis-DRS spectroscopy and a bathochromic shift is observed in the band gap energy of synthesized Ag doped ZnO. From XRD, the particle size of the ZnO, green modified ZnO and Ag doped ZnO nanoparticles was found to be 36, 39 and 53 nm respectively. Photodegradation of crystal violet dye was studied by UV-Visible spectroscopy. The degradation ability of the surface modified ZnO was found to be more efficient than that of bare ZnO and green modified ZnO nanoparticles. The photocatalytic reactions obeyed pseudo-first-order kinetics according to Langmuir- Hinshelwood model. The reuse of nanoparticles for photocatalytic activity was also studied.

Morphological and physio-biochemical responses of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.) organogenic cultures to salt and drought stresses induced in vitro

Morphological and physio-biochemical responses of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.) organogenic cultures to salt and drought stresses induced in vitro

Comparative Pharmacognostic and Powder Microscopic Studies of the Bark of Four Ficus Species (Nalpamaram)

Nalpamaram is widely used in traditional Ayurvedic system for the treatment of several ailments. It is very effective for the treatment of skin diseases like pigmentation, wrinkles and dark circles. This has a brown texture and a unique aroma. Nalpamaram is a mixture of four plant species of the family Moraceae - Ficus religiosa (Asvattha), Ficus benghalensis (Nyagrodha), Ficus racemosa (Udumbara) and Ficus microcarpa (Plaksah). The barks of the species are usually interchanged or adulterated with other species of Ficus because of the limited knowledge in identification and differentiation. Therefore, a detailed comparative pharmacognostic evaluation of the four species has been carried out with the aim to establish the diagnostic keys of these important drugs based on the pharmacognostic and powder macroscopic profiles. Pharmacognostic study of all these shows differences in values. Total ash is low in F. racemosa and high in F. benghalensis Acid insoluble ash is low in F. benghalensis and high in F. racemosa. Water soluble extractive is low in F. benghalensis and high in F. racemosa. Alcohol soluble extractive is low in F. benghalensis and high in F. racemosa. Unique identification features like stone cells and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate were found in the powder of all four species. The information from the present study provide data which is useful for the development of suitable monograph, determining the quality and purity of a crude drug and laying down Pharmacopoeia standards for Nalpamaram.

First Report of Bacterial Leaf Spot of Ficus benghalensis Caused by Pseudomonas cichorii in Pakistan.

Ficus benghalensis L. belongs to the family Moraceae, native to Asia and commonly known as Banyan. It has been identified as an important medicinal tree due to its antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties (Singh et al., 2009; Thite et al., 2014). In March 2021, leaf spots were observed on Banyan trees in the Kharian forest zone, District Gujrat, Punjab Province, Pakistan. Initial symptoms on leaves were irregular, water-soaked, and light brown lesions. The lesions turned dark brown at the centre, and the margins gradually turned yellow. The average size of lesions was 12 to 20 × 8 to 13 mm. The lesions coalesced and produced necrotic areas on the leaf (Figure 1). Samples (n=34) were collected based on symptoms and infected leaf segments were excised into small pieces (10-20 mm), surface disinfected with 1% NaClO for 10 seconds and rinsed three times with sterilized distilled water (SDW). Ten pieces/sample were mashed and soaked in 1.5 ml SDW to obtain a suspension. Later, 10 µL of the suspension was streaked on Nutrient agar (NA) and King's B medium (KBM) and incubated for 72 h at 30°C. After 72 h bacterial colonies appeared on NA and KBM medium. Each colony was re-streaked for three times to obtain the purified colonies. Morphological and biochemical characteristics of isolated bacterial cultures were performed by following the method of Schaad et al. (2001). Bacterial colonies appeared pale yellow to creamy, smooth, and circular with undulated margins on both NA and KBM medium. The colonies produced a fluorescent blue colour on KBM under the UV light. Isolated bacterial cultures were positive for oxidase, negative for levan production and arginine dihydrolase. Based on these characteristics, the pathogen was identified as Pseudomonas species. For molecular identification, 16S rRNA and rpoB genes were amplified and sequenced using the following primers: 27F/1492R (Lane, 1991) and LAPS/LAPS27 (Ait Tayeb et al. 2005), respectively. All the isolates were identified as P. cichorii after BLASTn analysis. The sequences of isolate BLS-01 obtained in this study were deposited in GenBank with accession No. OK397593 for 16S rRNA and OK423684 for rpoB exhibiting 100 % similarity with P. cichorii Accession No. MK356431 for 16S rRNA and JQ267563 for rpoB. A pathogenicity test was performed on healthy Banyan seedlings to fulfil Koch's postulates. Leaves from seedling plants were inoculated with 3 mL of BLS-01 suspension (108 CFU/ml) by spraying the inoculum on leaves using a sterilized spray bottle. The leaves sprayed with sterilized distilled water served as control (Figure 2). The experiment was performed three times following the same protocol as described above. Symptoms that appeared on inoculated leaves after 7-10 days were similar to the symptoms observed on original infected Banyan tree leaves in the forest zone. Control leaves remained asymptomatic during the whole experiment. The pathogen from the artificial infected leaves was re-isolated and identified as P. cichorii based on morphological, biochemical, and molecular characteristics. To our knowledge, this is the first report of leaf spot of F. benghalensis caused by P. cichorii in Pakistan.

Chemical Composition and Bioactivities of Egyptian Opuntia ficus–indica Seeds Oils Obtained by Conventional and Ultrasound-assisted Extraction Techniques

Chemical Composition and Bioactivities of Egyptian Opuntia ficus–indica Seeds Oils Obtained by Conventional and Ultrasound-assisted Extraction Techniques

Phytochemical profiling, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities of hydroethanolic extracts of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus indica) fruit and pulp.

Phenolic compounds in prickly pear [Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.] are known to contribute to the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the prickly pear. The present study aimed to evaluate the antioxidants and in vitro antimicrobial potential in the hydroethanolic extracts of different parts (fruit, cladode, and pulp) of prickly pear. Different polyphenolic compounds were analyzed by using high-performance liquid chromatography. The results indicated that cladode possessed a higher quantity of phenolics compared with that observed in fruit and pulp. The most important phenolic compound in high quantity was gallic acid (66.19 μg/g) in cladode. The 100% aqueous extract of cladode exhibited the highest antioxidant (92%) and antimicrobial activities against Salmonella typhi (3.40 mg/ml), Helicobacter pylori (1.37 mg/ml), Escherichia coli (1.41 mg/ml), and Staphylococcus aureus (1.41 mg/ml). Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that antioxidant activity and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) responses had a significant negative correlation with each other. Overall, the current results provided basic data for choosing prickly pear cladode with high antioxidant capacity for the development and consumption of antioxidant-based alternative medicines and value addition of formulated foods.

Removal of Brilliant Green Dye from Water Using Ficus benghalensis Tree Leaves as an Efficient Biosorbent.

The presence of dyes in water stream is a major environmental problem that affects aquatic and human life negatively. Therefore, it is essential to remove dye from wastewater before its discharge into the water bodies. In this study, Banyan (Ficus benghalensis, F. benghalensis) tree leaves, a low-cost biosorbent, were used to remove brilliant green (BG), a cationic dye, from an aqueous solution. Batch model experiments were carried out by varying operational parameters, such as initial concentration of dye solution, contact time, adsorbent dose, and pH of the solution, to obtain optimum conditions for removing BG dye. Under optimum conditions, maximum percent removal of 97.3% and adsorption capacity (Qe) value of 19.5 mg/g were achieved (at pH 8, adsorbent dose 0.05 g, dye concentration 50 ppm, and 60 min contact time). The Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms were applied to the experimental data. The linear fit value, R2 of Freundlich adsorption isotherm, was 0.93, indicating its best fit to our experimental data. A kinetic study was also carried out by implementing the pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models. The adsorption of BG on the selected biosorbent follows pseudo-second-order kinetics (R2 = 0.99), indicating that transfer of internal and external mass co-occurs. This study surfaces the excellent adsorption capacity of Banyan tree leaves to remove cationic BG dye from aqueous solutions, including tap water, river water, and filtered river water. Therefore, the selected biosorbent is a cost-effective and easily accessible approach for removing toxic dyes from industrial effluents and wastewater.

Mobilization and scavenging of Ni + 2 and Cd + 2 from binary metal ions mixture to study the influence of co-cation on biosorption

ABSTRACT Scavenging of Nickel and Cadmium from synthetic metal systems was studied by using Ficus benghalensis as a biosorbent. The characteristic behavior of biosorbent was evaluated by Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Findings were supportive of selected biomass during the experimental procedure. pH 5 was found as a point of zero charge. The concentrations of acidic and basic functional groups (0.3 and 0.02 mmol/g, respectively) on the surface of Ficus benghalensis were estimated by adopting Boehm’s titration. Biosorption parameters were performed, and the co-cation inhibitory effect was found to be significantly higher for Ni + 2 than Cd + 2. The attachment of Ni + 2 was hindered by Cd + 2 present in an aqueous medium. Biosorption capacity varied in Ni + 2 >Ni + 2 mix > Cd + 2 >Cd + 2 mix. For Ni, RMSE values increased from 0.34–0.61 because Ni + 2 faced the inhibitory effect of Cd + 2, but the case was inverse for Cd + 2.

SYNTHESIS OF ZINC OXIDE NANORODS USING Ficus benghalensis AERIAL ROOT EXTRACT AND ITS ENHANCED ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AND ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITIES AGAINST DENTAL BACTERIA

High-purity Zinc Oxide and Ficus benghalensis – Zinc Oxide Nanorods were developed by hydrothermal method. The physio-chemical characteristics of the Nanorods were investigated. X-ray Diffraction spectrum confirms the formation of well crystalline nanorods along (101) orientation. The particle size of as-synthesized Nano rods was noticed to be lesser than the chemically synthesized Zinc Oxide nanorods. The PL spectrum shows a broad red emission peak and a sharp blue emission peak. The width of the energy gap of nanorods is lesser than the chemically synthesized ones. The functional groups of the Nanorods were determined by Fourier Transformation Infrared analysis. Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis micrograph reveals the morphology of the nanorods and elements present. The antibacterial and anti-inflammatory efficiency of the Nanorods were evaluated by the Agar well diffusion method against some multi-drug safe oral microbes and the Bovine serum albumin (BSA) denaturation method.

Ficus benghalensis—A comprehensive review on pharmacological research, nanotechnological applications, and patents

Ficus benghalensis—A comprehensive review on pharmacological research, nanotechnological applications, and patents