Ficopomatus Enigmaticus Research Articles

Resurgence of massive occurrence of the invasive polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel, 1923) in the Caspian Sea

Resurgence of massive occurrence of the invasive polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel, 1923) in the Caspian Sea

Colonisation patterns and reef growth of the invasive serpulid Ficopomatus enigmaticus in a Greek coastal lagoon

The reef-building serpulid polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus is an invasive species in brackish waters in tropical and temperate zones worldwide and often has massive impacts on ecosystems and anthropogenic activities. In Prokopos Lagoon in Greece, the species has constructed large reefs over the past few decades which occupy a large area of the lagoon. In this study, we used high-resolution aerial photography to map the distribution of these reefs, and conducted a one-year field survey to investigate settlement and growth parameters, including abundance, biomass and body length, using artificial settlement panels. We correlated our findings with physicochemical measurements, specifically focusing on temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen. Salinity exhibited marked and rapid fluctuations, ranging from less than 2 to over 42 Practical Salinity Units (PSU). These variations did not affect the adult population, but settlement only occurred at salinities above approximately 10 PSU and only when water temperatures surpassed 18–20 °C. Settlement was reduced when temperatures were high (> 28 °C) but was not affected by high salinity. The maximum abundance measured was 880 000 individuals m−2, and reefs attained a weight of 18 kg m−2 in 11 months. This study contributes further to understanding the species’ environmental tolerances and life cycle, which in turn may help to design future management measures.

Assessing combined effects of long-term exposure to copper and marine heatwaves on the reef-forming serpulid Ficopomatus enigmaticus through a biomarker approach

Sessile benthic organisms can be affected by global changes and local pressures, such as metal pollution, that can lead to damages at different levels of biological organization. Effects of exposure to marine heatwaves (MHWs) alone and in combination with environmentally relevant concentration of copper (Cu) were evaluated in the reef-forming tubeworm Ficopomatus enigmaticus using a multi-biomarker approach. Biomarkers of cell membrane damage, enzymatic antioxidant defences, metabolic activity, neurotoxicity, and DNA integrity were analyzed. The exposure to Cu alone did not produce any significant effect. Exposure to MHWs alone produced effects only on metabolic activity (increase of glutathione S-transferase) and energy reserves (decrease in protein content). MHWs in combination with copper was the condition that most influenced the status of cell homeostasis of exposed F. enigmaticus. The combination of MHWs plus Cu exposure induced increase of protein carbonylation and glutathione S-transferase activity, decrease in protein/carbohydrate content and carboxylesterase activity. This study on a reef-forming organism highlighted the additive effect of a climate change-related stressor to metals pollution of marine and brackish waters.

The First Evidence of the Water Bioremediation Potential of Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel 1923): From Threat to Resource?

Each year, a staggering 700,000 tons of synthetic dyes are manufactured globally, leading to the release of dye-laden wastewater into aquatic systems. These synthetic dyes resist biodegradation, endangering human and environmental health. Since traditional wastewater treatments are basically unable to remove dyes, exploring the potential of alternative solutions, such as bioremediation, is crucial to reduce dye contamination in aquatic ecosystems. Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel 1923), listed as one of the 100 worst invasive species in Europe, is considered an invasive ecosystem engineer capable of causing economic and ecological losses. Despite this negative status, the literature suggests its positive contributions to aquatic ecosystems as habitat former and water bioremediator. However, existing evidence on the potential of F. enigmaticus to improve water quality is fragmented and lacks experimental data from laboratory tests. This study examined the potential of Ficopomatus reefs, both living and dead, to enhance water quality by removing contaminants, focusing on methylene blue (MB), one of the most common synthetic dyes. Bioaccumulation and bioadsorption were identified as key mechanisms for dye removal, supported by ATR-FTIR and microscopic analyses. Ficopomatus efficiently removed up to 80% of MB within 24 h. Bioaccumulation in the soft body accounted for 18% of the total removal, while complex adsorption phenomena involving carbonaceous, microalgal, and organic reef components accounted for 82%. Surprisingly, bioremediated solutions exhibited significant effects in ecotoxicological tests on bacteria, indicating the potential of F. enigmaticus to disrupt bacterial quorum sensing related to biofilm formation, and suggesting a possible antifouling action. This study underscores the intricate interplay between F. enigmaticus, water quality improvement, and potential ecological consequences, stressing the need for further investigation into its multifaceted role in aquatic ecosystems.

Climate change influences global distribution of alien tube worms

Alien tube worms have been introduced outside their original distribution areas via international shipping and have become invasive in these areas. Climate change has been acknowledged to redistribute both native and alien species; however, the effect of climate change on the global distribution of alien tube worms is unknown. This study predicts the global distribution patterns of alien tube worms (Hydroides elegans, Sabella spallanzanii, and Ficopomatus enigmaticus) and projects how climate change influences these patterns using species distribution modelling. Sea surface temperature, salinity, primary productivity, phosphate, nitrate, and current velocity are selected as the predictors. The models predict species occurrences well, with AUC values greater than 0.95. Under the present climate scenario, the occurrence probability of alien tube worms is high (>0.9) within the temperate Atlantic Ocean, Persian Gulf, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, Southern China, and Southern Australia. The probability of occurrence is expected to increase across oceans by 2100, suggesting that alien tube worms will be more common in the future. Increases in occurrence probability are also projected at higher latitudes (e.g., Barents Sea) by 2100, indicating poleward shifts of these species. This study highlights the urgency of incorporating climate change into the management of alien invasive species.

Is Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Annelida: Serpulidae) Becoming a Nuisance in Galveston Bay, Texas?

Herein, we report the recent proliferation of the non-native serpulid worm Ficopomatus enigmaticus in parts of Galveston Bay, Texas. Reef-like aggregations were first recovered from a settlement plate and a submerged brick at the Kemah Boardwalk Marina on 4 May 2023. By 20 May, similar growths were reported to us by the Kemah Boardwalk Marina on floating docks, boat hulls, propellers, and rudders. On June 8, nearby marinas remained unaffected. We confirmed the worms’ species identities by noting their diagnostic characteristics.

First report of the mitogenome of the invasive reef-building polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Annelida: Serpulidae) and a cryptic lineage from the Japanese Archipelago.

The mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of the family Serpulidae are characterized by a high nucleotide sequence divergence and a significant number of gene order rearrangements compared with other families within the phylum Annelida. However, only two of 50 genera of serpulids have mitogenomes already sequenced. In this study, we report the first sequencing and assembly of the complete mitogenome of Ficopomatus, thus providing further knowledge on mitochondrial gene sequences of Serpulidae. A mitogenome of the invasive reef-building polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus was amplified by long PCR and sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq System. It comprised 15,853bp and consisted of 12 protein-coding genes(atp8was not found), 23 tRNA, and two rRNA genes. The AT and GC skew values were infrequent when compared to annelid mitogenomes but similar to other serpulids sequenced to date (i.e., Spirobranchus and Hydroides). The mitochondrial gene order of F. enigmaticus was highly rearranged compared to other serpulids. To amplify 16S rRNA gene sequences, we developed a 16S rRNA primer set by modifying the universal primer set 16SarL/16SbrH. We detected the 16S rRNA sequence of F. enigmaticus deposited in GenBank erroneously characterized as of serpulid origin. We reported for the first time the presence of two lineages of F. enigmaticus in Japan, which have already been identified in California, Australia, and the Mediterranean. The first mitochondrial genome of F. enigmaticus showed a unique gene order rearrangement, corroborating the remarkable diversity in the previously reported mitogenomes of other serpulid species. The presence of the two lineages of F. enigmaticus identified for the first time in Japan represents another case of cryptic invasion. The first 16S rRNA gene sequences of F. enigmaticus obtained in the present study can be used as reference sequences in future DNA metabarcoding studies.

Introducing energy into marine environments: A lab-scale static magnetic field submarine cable simulation and its effects on sperm and larval development on a reef forming serpulid

Non-chemical sources of anthropogenic environmental stress, such as artificial lights, noise and magnetic fields, are still an underestimate factor that may affect the wildlife. Marine environments are constantly subjected to these kinds of stress, especially nearby to urbanized coastal areas. In the present work, the effect of static magnetic fields, associated with submerged electric cables, was evaluated in gametes and early life stages of a serpulid polychaete, namely Ficopomatus enigmaticus. Specifically, biochemical/physiological impairments of sperm, fertilization rate inhibition and incorrect larval development were assessed. We evaluated differences between two selected magnetic field induction values (0.5 and 1 mT) along a range of exposure times (30 min–48 h), for a sound evaluation on this species. We found that a magnetic induction of 1 mT, a typical value that can be found at distance of tens of cm from a submerged cable, may be considered a biologically and ecologically relevant for sessile organisms and for coastal environments more generally. This value exerted statistically significant effects on membranes, DNA integrity, kinetic parameters and mitochondrial activity of sperm cells. Moreover, a significant reduction in fertilization rate was observed in sperm exposed to the same magnetic induction level (1 mT) for 3 h, compared to controls. Regarding early larval stages, 48-h exposure did not affect the correct development. Our results represent a starting point for a future focus of research on magnetic field effects on early life stages of aquatic invertebrates, using model species as representative for reef-forming/encrusting organisms and ecological indicators of soft sediment quality.

Oligo(2-alkyl-2-oxazoline)-based graft copolymers for marine antifouling coatings

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based graft copolymers have been widely applied for the modification of poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS)-based coatings that resist marine biofouling. In this research, we synthesized oligo(2-alkyl-2-oxazoline) (OAOXA)-based graft copolymer analogues, and subsequently tested their applicability in the formulation of structurally similar coatings, aiming to highlight the influence of polymer composition on biopassive properties. In particular, poly(dimethyl siloxane methacrylate)-co-oligo(2-alkyl-2-oxazoline)methacrylate copolymers were synthesized by reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization, starting from oligo(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)- and oligo(2-methyl-2-oxazoline)-methacrylate macromonomers (OEOXMA and OMOXMA, respectively). Amphiphilic copolymer films with OAOXA grafts were found to be more hydrophilic with respect to those obtained using PEG analogues. PDMS coatings containing the graft copolymers as surface additives were tested towards the settlement of the macrofouler Ficopomatus enigmaticus and the diatom Navicula salinicola. The biofouling experiments indicated that OAOXA-containing films showed a comparable and in some cases improved performance with respect to their PEG-based counterparts, thus highlighting how OAOXA-based graft copolymers represent a valid alternative to PEG derivatives as surface-active additives to design antibiofouling coatings.

Nitroxide-Containing Amphiphilic Random Terpolymers for Marine Antifouling and Fouling-Release Coatings

Two types of amphiphilic random terpolymers, poly(ethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate)-ran-poly(2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyloxy methacrylate)-ran-poly(polydimethyl siloxane methacrylate) (PEGMEMA-r-PTMA-r-PDMSMA), were synthesized and evaluated for antifouling (AF) and fouling-release (FR) properties using diverse marine fouling organisms. In the first stage of production, the two respective precursor amine terpolymers containing (2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-piperidyl methacrylate) units (PEGMEMA-r-PTMPM-r-PDMSMA) were synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization using various comonomer ratios and two initiators: alkyl halide and fluoroalkyl halide. In the second stage, these were selectively oxidized to introduce nitroxide radical functionalities. Finally, the terpolymers were incorporated into a PDMS host matrix to create coatings. AF and FR properties were examined using the alga Ulva linza, the barnacle Balanus improvisus, and the tubeworm Ficopomatus enigmaticus. The effects of comonomer ratios on surface properties and fouling assay results for each set of coatings are discussed in detail. There were marked differences in the effectiveness of these systems against the different fouling organisms. The terpolymers had distinct advantages over monopolymeric systems across the different organisms, and the nonfluorinated PEG and nitroxide combination was identified as the most effective formulation against B. improvisus and F. enigmaticus.

Posidonia oceanica (L.) (Delile, 1813) extracts as a potential booster biocide in fouling-release coatings.

Since the banning of tributyltin, the addition of inorganic (metal oxides) and organic (pesticides, herbicides) biocides in antifouling paint has represented an unavoidable step to counteract biofouling and the resulting biodeterioration of submerged surfaces. Therefore, the development of new methods that balance antifouling efficacy with environmental impact has become a topic of great importance. Among several proposed strategies, natural extracts may represent one of the most suitable alternatives to the widely used toxic biocides. Posidonia oceanica is one of the most representative organisms of the Mediterranean Sea and contains hundreds of bioactive compounds. In this study, we prepared, characterized, and assessed a hydroalcoholic extract of P. oceanica and then compared it to three model species. Together, these four species belong to relevant groups of biofoulers: bacteria (Aliivibrio fischeri), diatoms (Phaeodactylum tricornutum), and serpulid polychaetes (Ficopomatus enigmaticus). We also added the same P. oceanica extract to a PDMS-based coating formula. We tested this coating agent with Navicula salinicola and Ficopomatus enigmaticus to evaluate both its biocidal performance and its antifouling properties. Our results indicate that our P. oceanica extract provides suitable levels of protection against all the tested organisms and significantly reduces adhesion of N. salinicola cells and facilitates their release in low-intensity waterflows.

Are natural deep eutectic solvents always a sustainable option? A bioassay-based study

The traditional use of organic solvents in various branches of industry is being rethought as these compounds very often display high volatility, toxicity and lipophilicity (related to the ability to interact with biological membranes). More recently, developments in the field of Green Chemistry are focusing on the design of more sustainable and cost-effective solvent alternatives like Ionic Liquids (ILs), bio-based solvents and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs). The present study aimed at performing an ecotoxicological screening of 15 NADESs using an extensive set of marine and freshwater bioassays, based on different endpoints as the following: immobilization of the crustacean Daphnia magna, growth inhibition of Raphidocelis subcapitata and of Phaeodactylum tricornutum, larval development alterations on the serpulid Ficopomatus enigmaticus and bioluminescence inhibition of Aliivibrio fischeri. What emerged was a general absence of toxicity of all samples. However, both algal assays showed a certain degree of biostimulation, up to over 100% growth increase in respect to controls with 8 out of 15 compounds tested with Raphidocelis subcapitata. Despite NADESs-induced negligible toxicity effects to invertebrates, encouraging their labelling as “sustainable” solvents, the liability of their intentional or accidental release into aquatic systems may represent a serious risk in terms of ecosystem functioning impairments.

Biological Characteristics of the Polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel, 1923) from Mass Settlements in the Coastal Water Area of the Kerch Strait (Black Sea)

Biological Characteristics of the Polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel, 1923) from Mass Settlements in the Coastal Water Area of the Kerch Strait (Black Sea)

Biochemical response of Ficopomatus enigmaticus adults after exposure to organic and inorganic UV filters

With the increase of UV filters usage and consequent release into aquatic environments, the concerns about their potential ecological risks are also increasing. According to this, in the present study, adult polychaetes of the species Ficopomatus enigmaticus were chronically exposed to three concentrations (0.01, 0.1 and 0.5 mg/L) of organic and inorganic filters (Ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EHMC) and nanoparticulate Zinc oxide (nZnO), respectively) in order to analyse biochemical responses related to cellular damage, antioxidant defence, biotransformation mechanisms and, lastly, neurotoxicity. Despite major lipid peroxidation caused by EHMC was observed, both UV filters have produced the same response patterns. In details, a clear concentration-dependent activation of glutathione S-transferases and a significant decrease of acetylcholinesterase levels defined an important neurotoxic effect was observed for both contaminants. These results become important to expand the limited scientific literature on biochemical responses of marine and brackish water invertebrates to organic and inorganic UV filters.

Impacts of alien polychaete species in marine ecosystems: a systematic review

AbstractThis systematic review analysed scientific publications to identify relevant research about the impact of alien polychaete species around the world, using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis) guide. The criterion for inclusion was studies published in English, with the key terms (e.g. ‘impact’, ‘alien species’, ‘polychaetes’) in the title, abstract and keywords. The literature search was conducted in Scopus and Web of Science from April to December 2020. The search resulted in 150 papers that included information about impact of alien polychaete species. Of these studies, 98% were published in the last 25 years, reporting on the impact of 40 species in 18 regions of the world. Sixty-one per cent of the research was conducted in the Baltic Sea, South-west Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. The most frequent type of study was field surveys (46%) and the most studied system was open coast areas (36%). The species with the highest number of publications about their impacts were Ficopomatus enigmaticus, Marenzelleria viridis, Sabella spallanzanii and Boccardia proboscidea. Based on evidence of their most severe documented impacts in their introduced ranges, the impact mechanisms (IMos) of the alien polychaete species were strongly related to their biology and lifestyles. We found that species that build conspicuous reefs and tube-dwellers mainly showed physical and structural impact on ecosystems; shell-borers, mainly parasitism and infauna species, showed mainly chemical, physical and structural impacts on ecosystems. Some recommendations for the study of alien polychaete species are discussed.

Amphiphilic Polyphosphonate Copolymers as New Additives for PDMS-Based Antifouling Coatings.

Poly(ethyl ethylene phosphonate)-based methacrylic copolymers containing polysiloxane methacrylate (SiMA) co-units are proposed as surface-active additives as alternative solutions to the more investigated polyzwitterionic and polyethylene glycol counterparts for the fabrication of novel PDMS-based coatings for marine antifouling applications. In particular, the same hydrophobic SiMA macromonomer was copolymerized with a methacrylate carrying a poly(ethyl ethylene phosphonate) (PEtEPMA), a phosphorylcholine (MPC), and a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEGMA) side chain to obtain non-water soluble copolymers with similar mole content of the different hydrophilic units. The hydrolysis of poly(ethyl ethylene phosphonate)-based polymers was also studied in conditions similar to those of the marine environment to investigate their potential as erodible films. Copolymers of the three classes were blended into a condensation cure PDMS matrix in two different loadings (10 and 20 wt%) to prepare the top-coat of three-layer films to be subjected to wettability analysis and bioassays with marine model organisms. Water contact angle measurements showed that all of the films underwent surface reconstruction upon prolonged immersion in water, becoming much more hydrophilic. Interestingly, the extent of surface modification appeared to be affected by the type of hydrophilic units, showing a tendency to increase according to the order PEGMA < MPC < PEtEPMA. Biological tests showed that Ficopomatus enigmaticus release was maximized on the most hydrophilic film containing 10 wt% of the PEtEP-based copolymer. Moreover, coatings with a 10 wt% loading of the copolymer performed better than those containing 20 wt% for the removal of both Ficopomatus and Navicula, independent from the copolymer nature.

Reef-building Ficopomatus enigmaticus and associated Polychaetes on artificial concrete blocks along Mediterranean seaside, Egypt

Reef-building Ficopomatus enigmaticus and associated Polychaetes on artificial concrete blocks along Mediterranean seaside, Egypt

Context-dependent effect of serpulid reefs on the variability of soft-bottom macrobenthic assemblages in three Mediterranean lagoons (Sardinia, Italy)

In the present study, we investigated and compared the spatial variation in soft-bottom macrozoobenthic assemblages and associated sediments in three coastal lagoons colonized by mixed serpulid reefs of Ficopomatus enigmaticus and Hydroides dianthus, differing in extension, density, and confinement condition. We hypothesized that the effect of serpulid reefs on the benthic assemblages varies among lagoons, and that the pattern of spatial variation in the benthic assemblages at two distances (<1 m and 10's m apart) from serpulid reefs also differs among lagoons. The PERMANOVA revealed significant differences in the benthic assemblages of the three lagoons. In particular, the most marine and species-rich lagoon of Corru S'Ittiri, and the Santa Giusta lagoon, were dominated by bivalves and polychaetes, while the most confined, brackish San Giovanni lagoon, which had the least number of species, was dominated by highly abundant crustaceans, consistent with the presence of macroalgal cover. Moreover, we found significant differences in the variation in the benthic assemblages at the <1 m and 10's m locations in Corru S’Ittiri and Santa Giusta, but not in San Giovanni. These differences paralleled differences in sediment composition which were reciprocally influenced by serpulid reefs. In particular, hard-bottom species, e.g. the bivalve Mytilaster minimus, dominated at locations rich in carbonates and calcareous tube fragments, whilst soft-bottom species, such as Naineris laevigata, Abra segmentum and Alitta succinea, occurred more abundantly at some organic-enriched, muddy locations near the reefs. This work represents an original approach to investigate the effect of serpulid reefs as a hotspot of biodiversity in Mediterranean lagoons. The three studied lagoons, used to encompass the high variability of these ecosystems, demonstrate for the first time that the effect of serpulid reefs on soft-bottom benthic assemblages and their spatial variation within a lagoon varies depending on local interlinked environmental conditions, including reefs characteristics, confinement levels, sediment composition, and marine influence.

Ecotoxicological screening of UV-filters using a battery of marine bioassays

The present study aimed to assess the toxicity of seven UV-filters: zinc oxide nanoparticles (nZnO, particle size <100 nm), titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nTiO2, primary particle size 21 nm), 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), avobenzone (AVO), octocrylene (OCTO) and benzophenone-3 (BP-3) on three species: Aliivibrio fischeri (inhibition of bioluminescence), Phaeodactylum tricornutum (growth inhibition) and Ficopomatus enigmaticus (larval development success). Results showed nTiO2 to be the most toxic for P. tricornutum (EC50 0.043 mg L−1), while no effect was observed in A. fischeri and F. enigmaticus. EHMC was the most toxic to A. fischeri (EC50 0.868 mg L−1 (15 min) and 1.06 mg L−1 (30 min)) and the second most toxic to P. tricornutum. For F. enigmaticus, the lowest percentages of correct development resulted from 4-MBC exposure, with EC50 of 0.836 mg L−1. Overall, AVO induced low toxicity to every assessed species and OCTO was the least toxic for F. enigmaticus larvae. Considering the results obtained for F. enigmaticus, further larval development assays were performed with nZnO and EHMC under different light (light vs darkness) and temperature (20 and 25 °C) conditions, showing higher percentages of correct development at 25 °C, independently on light/darkness conditions. Under different temperature and photoperiod conditions, nZnO was more toxic than EHMC. Overall, nZnO and EHMC were among the most toxic UV filters tested and, when testing the effects of these UV-filters with temperature the results highlight that the impacts are liable to be lessened at higher temperatures (25 °C compared with 20 °C), in the case of this estuarine polychaete species. Nevertheless, further experiments are necessary to describe the effects of these two UV-filters at different organization levels, to study the toxicity of eventual degradation by-products and to provide more information on the combination of different stressors.

A multi-bioassay integrated approach to assess antifouling potential of extracts from the Mediterranean sponge Ircinia oros

The phylum Porifera and their symbionts produce a wide variety of bioactive compounds, playing a central role in their ecology and evolution. In this study, four different extracts (obtained by non-polar and semi-polar extraction methodologies) of the Mediterranean sponge Ircinia oros were tested through a multi-bioassay integrated approach to assess their antifouling potential. Tests were performed using three common species, associated with three different endpoints: the marine bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri (inhibition of bioluminescence), the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum (inhibition of growth), and different development stages of the brackish water serpulid Ficopomatus enigmaticus (gametes: sperm motion, vitality inhibition and cellular damage; larvae: development; adults: AChE (acetylcholinesterase)-inhibitory activity). The effects of extracts were species specific and did not vary among different extraction methodologies. In particular, no significant reduction of bioluminescence of A. fischeri was observed for all tested samples. By contrast, extracts inhibited P. tricornutum growth and had toxic effects on different F. enigmaticus’ developmental stages. Our results suggest that the proposed test battery can be considered a suitable tool as bioactivity screening of marine natural products.