Film Camera Research Articles

Active pixel sensor array as a detector for electron microscopy

A new high-resolution recording device for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is urgently needed. Neither film nor CCD cameras are systems that allow for efficient 3-D high-resolution particle reconstruction. We tested an active pixel sensor (APS) array as a replacement device at 200, 300, and 400 keV using a JEOL JEM-2000 FX II and a JEM-4000 EX electron microscope. For this experiment, we used an APS prototype with an area of 64×64 pixels of 20 μm×20 μm pixel pitch. Single-electron events were measured by using very low beam intensity. The histogram of the incident electron energy deposited in the sensor shows a Landau distribution at low energies, as well as unexpected events at higher absorbed energies. After careful study, we concluded that backscattering in the silicon substrate and re-entering the sensitive epitaxial layer a second time with much lower speed caused the unexpected events. Exhaustive simulation experiments confirmed the existence of these back-scattered electrons. For the APS to be usable, the back-scattered electron events must be eliminated, perhaps by thinning the substrate to less than 30 μm. By using experimental data taken with an APS chip with a standard silicon substrate (300 μm) and adjusting the results to take into account the effect of a thinned silicon substrate (30 μm), we found an estimate of the signal-to-noise ratio for a back-thinned detector in the energy range of 200–400 keV was about 10:1 and an estimate for the spatial resolution was about 10 μm.

A cross‐cultural exploration of attitudes toward product expiration dates

AbstractThis is an exploratory study examining consumer attitudes toward product expiration dates in three different countries, the United States, Canada, and Turkey. In addition, the study investigates the differences in the importance of product expiration dates for three products, yogurt, over‐the‐counter medicine, and camera film, in the three cultures. A total of 687 surveys were gathered in the three countries. The results show that there are, indeed, differences among the consumers in three countries. American and Canadian consumers check product expiration dates before purchasing and before using products more often than Turkish consumers. Although most of the differences observed are between the respondents in Turkey versus the respondents in the United States and Canada, some differences between the U.S. and Canadian respondents are also found, indicating that culture plays an important role in consumer uncertainty avoidance. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Media Dumbness and other Rants

EVERY now and then, you need a good rant! I guess I am just tired of educators' media-related dumbness. Why is it that every sector of the commercial media exhibits more media savvy than the educational media? And why is it that there are public service announcements on television for everything under the sun -- Big Brothers and Big Sisters, seat belts, AIDS prevention, and services for the homeless -- but none about education and what's good for schoolchildren? To add to the problem, there are three cultures in education: the practitioners in the schools; the academics at the universities; and the researchers, who often don't teach much. Unfortunately, these three cultures don't really understand one another or feel a need to communicate. Let me illustrate this complex web of a problem. Yes, all these things do fit together, as you will see. When Mannheim Steamroller produced a Christmas DVD, the group used 30, 50-millimeter film cameras and more than 20 channels of digital audio. The disc is both compelling and moving. Why is there nothing approaching this kind of production in education? Or take music videos. If we can have high-powered music videos that sell songs, why can't we use them to promote things that are good for the children? The only high-fidelity educational video that I know of is almost exclusively wildlife oriented. Are bears and rain forests more important than kids? These are not unsupported rants. I just finished spending an entire day searching the Web for educational public service announcements (PSAs) and similar media. I found a total of two PSAs at Thomas Andrew Films -- one about a homeless father and one about the shortage of Big Brothers. I urge you to watch these two PSAs (www.thomasandrewfilms.com) and think how significant it would be if we could have similar ones about such educational topics as the importance of enrichment activities during the early years. While researching this topic on the Web, I reasoned that prestigious organizations and foundations, such as the Annenberg Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trusts, and others might be involved in creating PSAs for education. After all, Annenberg, for example, has been a big supporter of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. While I found that such public-minded organizations were involved in all kinds of projects, none of them were involved in sponsoring PSAs or other persuasive efforts to use the media to communicate about core issues in education. The only exception was some material I found on school reform, which to me is the wrong issue. Martin Kaplan, director of the Norman Lear Center at the University of Southern California, discussed the public interest obligation of radio and television stations on Minnesota Public Radio's Marketplace. According to Kaplan, the Telecommunications Act of 1934 made it clear that radio and television stations had an obligation to act in the public interest. Because the airwaves belong to the people, the people have an interest -- the public interest -- in how they are used. The act required stations to keep a detailed log of what it was they were covering that was of interest to the local public. Reporters were even required to go out into the community with clipboards to ascertain what local people wanted to have covered. Deregulation of the telecommunications industry over the last several decades has regrettably removed this public interest obligation of broadcasters.1 No one but me seems to have noticed that PSAs for public education have almost vanished, except possibly PSAs from politically motivated special-interest groups. For example, about two years ago, Florida Gov. Jeb Bush's office sponsored a 30-second PSA on why it was a good idea to stop social promotion and retain children in grade. He must have taken some heat for it because the PSA vanished quickly, never to be seen or discussed again. (I sure wish I could find a copy of it. …

This Issue of Acta

This Issue of Acta

A comparison of colour micrographs obtained with a charged couple device (CCD) camera and a 35‐mm camera

The purpose of this study was to determine if micrographs produced with a colour charged couple device (CCD) camera were comparable in quality to micrographs obtained with a 35-mm colour film camera. The Axiocam (Zeiss, Jena, Germany) CCD camera produced images of 3900 x 3090 pixels. Each picture in a series of 50 pairs of film and digital micrographs was rated independently by each of three observers on the categories of colour, detail and overall impression. A total of 28 of the 50 pairs of micrographs were discarded due to colour differences. Digital micrographs were rated lower on colour and higher on detail compared to film micrographs. The film and digital micrographs were rated equally on overall impression. The difference in colour between film and digital micrographs can be compensated for using image processing software on the digital image. However, such manipulation was not carried out as part of the present study. The study originally included 50 digital micrographs and 50 film micrographs. The micrographs were paired and 22 of the 50 pairs of micrographs were assessed. Thus 28 pairs were not evaluated due to colour differences in the non-manipulated pictures. The interobserver difference on colour in the remaining 22 pairs given as mean square +/- standard error of the mean was - 0.27 +/- 0.10, 0.62 +/- 0.10 and 0.90 +/- 0.11. The interobserver difference on detail was - 0.48 +/- 0.10, 0.95 +/- 0.10 and 1.43 +/- 0.10. The interobserver difference on overall impression was - 0.70 +/- 0.10, 0.57 +/- 0.10 and 1.27 +/- 0.10. All the results differed significantly (p < 0.001). Digital micrographs are sufficient in detail, colour and overall impression to replace the traditional 35-mm film recordings for use in histopathology.

Hybrid Production Environment

Today's workflows require the use of various acquisition and data sources. In order to keep the acquired data formats compatible with traditional film acquisition, some major problems need to be addressed. First, when acquisition is done via digital camera and traditional film camera, the final cut between shots often shows dramatic differences in color, depth of field, and quality. Studies will be presented about digital camera shots (HD material), acquired with a functional model of a digital film style camera. Second, in post-production most facilities have to work with scanned material that comes from various sources (telecines, scanners). This often results in differences in colors and dynamic range. Technologies that can be used to compensate between different source materials will be discussed. Finally, colors are the most crucial element in a hybrid production chain. Preserving colors from acquisition, scanning, recording, and projection is one of the most sophisticated tasks during production. Color management will be considered as a throughput solution.

The Current of CCD Image Sensor Development

First, basics of CCD image sensor will be shortly reviewed. Second, the super CCD will be presented, and its characteristics are discussed in comparison with a conventional ITCCD. Third, the topics of current developments will be discussed. Hitherto, the main theme of developing CCD image sensor has been on how to reduce the pixel size, especially for DSC applications. Already, the pixel size has become about 2-&#x3BC;m squire, and a pixel number has increased over 5 millions which makes the resolution equal to that of a film camera. Now, the pixel number competition will be on the final stage. The next challenges will be shift to the technologies for enhancing sensitivity, widening dynamic range and making a high frame rate movie from a mega-pixel imager. New technologies for realizing such requirements will be introduced, which are a dual pixel structure for widening the dynamic range and a horizontally signal charge mixing architecture to output a high frame movie.

Texture‐based image segmentation applied to the quantification of superficial sand in salmonid river gravels

AbstractThe presence of fine sediment in river gravels is widely recognized as being detrimental to salmonid habitat quality. In order to facilitate quantification of sand presence at larger scales, this paper presents an application of image processing allowing for rapid and accurate assessments of superficial sand presence in dry exposed fluvial gravels. Images for the process are acquired with a 35 mm SLR film camera and then scanned with a desktop scanner. Texture‐based segmentation is then applied to differentiate between sand and clast areas. Results show that the method is accurate and therefore it offers an alternative to bulk sampling in cases where rapid assessments of sand presence are required. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Status and future perspectives of the application potential of digital airborne sensor systems

This contribution will give an up to date overview of digital airborne sensor systems, including both, large format camera systems and multi-sensor systems (acquiring image and laser scanning data). The survey of technical parameters for the most prominent and important systems also includes a comparison with parameters of conventional film cameras. In order to discuss the potential for topographic mapping purposes from a user's point of view a bundle of factors – which we have summarised in a so-called “heptagon of user acceptance” – will be taken into consideration and be illustrated with results of various application projects. This critical discussion stresses the missing grade of automation and transferability of scene interpretation algorithms as the critical bottleneck in the overall digital processing chain. Hence, we will finally point out not only future perspectives of sensor developments, but also several novel and important directions for the interpretation of remotely sensed scenes.

Snow surface albedo estimation using terrestrial photography

A flexible and inexpensive remote sensing tool for albedo estimation using conventional terrestrial photography and its validation on an Alpine glacier are described. The proposed technique involves georeferencing oblique photographs to a digital elevation model (DEM), defining a mapping function between the information contained on a given pixel of the image and the corresponding cell of the DEM. This is attained by performing a perspective projection of the DEM after a viewing transformation into the camera coordinate system. Once the image is georeferenced, the reflectance values recorded by the film or digital camera are corrected for topographic and atmospheric influences and for the effect of the photographic process (lens-film-developing-scanning). Atmospheric transmittance is evaluated using the MODTRAN radiative transfer model. Diffuse and direct irradiation are estimated using a parametric solar irradiation model. The solar-ground geometry, anisotropy of reflected radiation, the effect of surrounding topography and the portion of visible sky are evaluated using terrain algorithms applied to the DEM. The response of the camera-film-scanner system is evaluated using an empirical approach. The result is a geographically correct map of normalized reflectance values. By comparing these to a surface of known albedo, the spatial distribution of albedos is calculated. Comparisons to in situ measurements on the Mer de Glace glacier, French Alps, show good agreement. Sources of error are identified and ways of improvement addressed. The georeferencing algorithm, implemented into the Interactive Data Language (IDL) is available from the author and at the user contributed IDL library at www.rsinc.com.

Variable Magnification Electron Holography for 2-D Mapping of Semiconductor Devices

Abstract The exit electron wave from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) specimens contains both amplitude and phase information. In routine TEM imaging, only amplitude information is recorded on the recording devices (film or CCD camera) and phase information of the electron wave function normally is canceled out. In 1947, Dennis Gabor proposed off-axis electron holography, a method of interference imaging in which the phase and amplitude components of the electron beam are obtained to correct spherical aberration of the transmission electron microscope to improve spatial resolution. In that process, the electron beam is split into the two beams: the un-scattered electron beam (i.e. the reference wave) and the image beam (or object wave) diffracted by the specimen and exiting the bottom of the specimen surface.

A prototype of digital photogrammetric algorithm for estimating roughness of rock surface

This study introduces the efficiency of using prototype digital photogrammetry for measuring the roughness of rock surfaces, employing digital stereo images obtained from a high resolution Kodak DCS 420 non-metric digital camera and a Rolleiflex 6006 metric film camera. To measure the surface roughness of test objects in the case of non-topographic applications, reference surfaces are mathematically estimated using the least squares method. The roughness processing capability of a digital camera and a metric film camera is evaluated using an arbitrarily chosen reference surface on the sample being studied. Then the results are compared with the measurements obtained using a laser profilometer. The RMS roughness and Z2s parameters estimated using the DCS 420 non-metric digital camera ranges from 0.001 mm to 0.067 mm and from 0.007 to 0.073, when compared to the laser profilometer values. In the case of the Rolleiflex 6006 metric film camera, the RMS and the Z2s parameters range from 0.010 mm to 0.056 mm and from 0.005 to 0.031. The prototype photogrammetric algorithm is consequently suitable for measuring rock surface roughness.

Hans Joachim Reuter: the urologic endoscopist, photographer, and historian.

Journal of EndourologyVol. 18, No. 3 Epochs in EndourologyHans Joachim Reuter: The Urologic Endoscopist, Photographer, and HistorianMatthias ReuterMatthias ReuterSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:29 Jul 2004https://doi.org/10.1089/089277904773582813AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited byDie Fachverselbstständigung der Urologie in der DDR„Urologen tagen in Berlin“13 September 2013 | Der Urologe, Vol. 52, No. 9 Volume 18Issue 3Apr 2004 To cite this article:Matthias Reuter.Hans Joachim Reuter: The Urologic Endoscopist, Photographer, and Historian.Journal of Endourology.Apr 2004.233-235.http://doi.org/10.1089/089277904773582813Published in Volume: 18 Issue 3: July 29, 2004PDF download

A Comparison of Digital Cameras

To make recommendations for the selection of digital imaging equipment and its use in the typical orthopaedic surgery practice, we investigated four digital cameras with maximal resolution ranging from 1.3-3.34 megapixels. We took images of a plain radiograph, a magnetic resonance image, a hand model, and a minifragment plate with all four digital cameras and a 35-mm film camera. Several variables were evaluated to determine their effect on image quality, including adjusting maximal camera resolution, using a flash, using a camera stand, and using a macromode. Images were graded on a 3-point scale on the computer desktop and as 5 x 7 inch prints by two blinded observers. A maximal camera resolution of 2.1 megapixels was required to make photograph-quality 5 x 7 inch prints of all subjects imaged. No difference in print quality was seen between images taken in the highest quality JPEG format and the uncompressed TIFF format. A macromode with closest focal length less than 5 inches was needed for imaging small subjects. The 1.3-megapixel camera was comparable with the higher resolution cameras for imaging radiographic studies and when viewing color images on the computer desktop.

Using earth observation data from multiple sources to map rare habitats in a coastal conservation area

Kenfig NNR (National Nature Reserve) is a coastal sand dune system in south Wales, UK. The site is an important location for the conservation of the fen orchid Liparis loeselii, a significant proportion of the UK population is found solely on the site. Approaches to the mapping and monitoring of the habitats at Kenfig NNR using EO (Earth Observation) meth- ods are investigated. Typical airborne EO missions over such sites produce more than a single source of EO data; these may include various optical imaging sensors with different spectral ranges, film cameras and ranging devices to measure topography. Conservation managers are thus presented with the problem of which sources of data to use when producing a land cover map of the site of interest. Using a data set gathered over the Kenfig NNR site, we investigate land cover mapping methods for conservation. The land cover types of interest typically cover small areas within a much larger site so they present a hard problem for the EO data and associated classification methods to solve. Land cover classifications produced from the data sets provide a set of competing hypotheses of land cover type for the site. Methods we use to resolve this competition between the data sets include voting methods, data fusion methods and a method utilising fuzzy logic to aggregate information. This paper is intended to act as an introduction to some of the issues involved in using EO data for habitat mapping in highly heterogeneous coastal dune environments and to present some preliminary results of the performance of each method.

Motion JPEG2000 for high quality video systems

Motion-JPEG2000 (ISO15444-3) is a new intraframe-based video compression standard, which preserves best image quality after compression for use in high quality video systems like HDTV-cameras, medical imaging cameras or digital cinema cameras. This paper describes the advantages of the new standard in comparison to other standards, lists typical applications for the new standard and points out implementation challenges for electronics in real-time systems. A comparison of motion-JPEG2000 with MPEG-2 is presented and realization concepts with combined hardware/software solutions like FPGA and embedded microcontrollers are shown. The scalability of video in the new standard provides new opportunities for efficient postproduction and distribution channels in the video processing chain.

Applications of kite aerial photography: Golf course management

The techniques of taking aerial photographs from kites were introduced by the authors in the Transactions (Aber, Sobieski et al. 1999) and in other journals during the past few years (Aber and Aber 2001). The basic method involves large kites for lifting camera rigs 50150 m above the surface (Fig. 1). Various film and digital cameras may be utilized to capture images in visible and near-infrared portions of the spectrum and in all directions relative to the ground target and sun position. The resulting airphotos are large-scale, highresolution images that depict ground features in surprising detail.

Computerised calculation scheme for ocular magnification with the Zeiss telecentric fundus camera.

Littmann (1982) described a method to determine the magnification of the eye in order to relate the size of a retinal feature to its measured image size on a telecentric fundus camera film. This required information only about ametropia and corneal curvature. Several other methods have been reported since then which consider other biometric data to enhance the accuracy of this classical method. The purpose of this study is to describe a numerical calculation scheme to determine the magnification q of the eye in two cardinal meridians using paraxial raytracing. Our calculation scheme is based on ametropia, keratometry, as well as biometric data such as axial length, anterior chamber depth and thickness of the crystalline lens. It is described step-by-step in order (1) to determine the refractive powers of both surfaces of the crystalline lens, which are not directly measurable in vivo, (2) to derive the retinal image conjugate to a circular object using paraxial raytracing, (3) to fit an ellipse to the retinal image, (4) to determine the secondary principal points (Gaussian length) separately for both cardinal meridians and (5) to calculate the ocular magnification q. The power of the crystalline lens is estimated to compensate for the spherocylindrical refraction at the spectacle plane and the corneal refraction with an astigmatic component thus creating a sharp image focused at the retinal plane. The capabilities of this computing scheme are demonstrated with five clinical examples and are related to the respective values of the classical Littmann formula as well as to enhanced methods described by Bennett (1988), Bennett et al. (1994) and Garway-Heath et al. (1998).

Macro Imaging with Digital Cameras

Abstract Advances in charged couple device (CCD) design, low cast processor power, cheap memory and dropping prices of digital cameras over the last few years have made the CCD digital camera art attractive alternative to the film camera for many imaging applications. This is especially true in macro imaging where it appears likely that digital cameras will replace film cameras (curiously, Long (2001), says otherwise). As will be described here, a digital camera equipped with a quality macro-zoom lens, generates images with a depth of field (e.g., Fig. 1) that greatly surpass images produced by a film camera with a comparable lens system.

Trends in the Use of Cameras and Computer Technology Among Dermatologists in New York City 2001–2002

BACKGROUND Photography and computers can enhance dermatologic visit documentation and care. OBJECTIVE To determine dermatologists' use of cameras and computers. METHODS We surveyed computer and camera use during the Dermatologic Society of Greater New York's meetings in January 2001 and 2002. RESULTS Approximately 75% of dermatologists can use computers. Between 2001 and 2002, 35-mm film camera use by attending and resident dermatologists fell from 60% to 47% and 43% to 32%, respectively, and digital camera increased from 25% to 38% and 35% to 59%, respectively. Approximately 50% of dermatologists use instant cameras. Approximately 15% of dermatologists use no camera. Most find images useful; however, medical dermatologists usually image only interesting patients, and dermatologic surgeons image almost all patients. Approximately 15% of dermatologist used electronic medical records (EMRs). CONCLUSION Computers and cameras are widely used but have not changed dermatologic practice. Images are not used to track skin disease or integrated with EMRs nor are EMRs widely used, probably because of difficulty of use and limited computer literacy. Where images appear to add value, for example, for preoperative and postoperative documentation among dermatologic surgeons, camera use is common, suggesting that utility drives technology adoption.