Fewer Years Of Schooling Research Articles

Bleeding profile associated with 1-year use of the segesterone acetate/ethinyl estradiol contraceptive vaginal system: pooled analysis from Phase 3 trials

ObjectivesTo describe bleeding patterns among users of the segesterone acetate (SA) and ethinyl estradiol (EE) contraceptive vaginal system (CVS), and identify factors associated with unscheduled bleeding/spotting (B/S). Study designWe pooled results from two multicenter, single-arm, open-label, pivotal, phase 3 studies of the SA/EE CVS conducted in 17 US and 7 international sites. Participants (age 18–40 years; BMI ≤29 kg/m2) followed a 21/7-day in/out schedule of CVS use for up to 13 cycles and recorded vaginal bleeding daily in paper diaries. Scheduled and unscheduled B/S were summarized by cycle. We used multiple logistic regression to identify factors associated with unscheduled bleeding/spotting, based on the first 4 cycles only. ResultsAnalysis included data from 2070 participants (16,408 cycles). Ninety-eight percent documented scheduled B/S [mean (SD): 4.9 (1.1) days/cycle)]. Absence of scheduled B/S was 5–8% of women/cycle. Unscheduled B/S ranged from 13.2% to 21.7% of women per cycle. Few women (1.8%) discontinued prematurely due to unacceptable bleeding. Black women were more likely to report unscheduled B/S than White women [Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.49, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.14–1.94]. Women with fewer years of schooling [<high school (AOR=0.62, 95% CI=0.43–0.90); high school graduate (AOR: 0.76, 95% CI=0.60–0.97)] were less likely to report any episode of unscheduled B/S compared to college graduates. ConclusionsParticipants using the SA/EE CVS up to 13 cycles reported good cycle control. Discontinuation due to unacceptable bleeding was very low. Further research into demographic/other differences with reported unscheduled bleeding is warranted. ImplicationsSince good cycle control is a key factor influencing contraceptive selection, adherence and continuation of combined hormonal contraceptives, the favorable bleeding profiles experienced by women during the SA/EE CVS clinical trials provide reassuring information for prospective users.

Health literacy of adults with and without arterial hypertension

Assess the level of health literacy of adults, with and without hypertension, treated in three basic health units (UBS) in Picos, Piauí. Cross-sectional study conducted with 357 adults. Data were collected using a questionnaire with sociodemographic variables, and literacy was assessed by the Test of Functional Literacy in Adults. Descriptive analysis was performed followed by the association between literacy and exposure variables with Pearson's chi-squared (X2) test and Mann-Whitney U test. Inadequate or marginal health literacy was found in three units investigated (71.5%; 77.8% and 85.2%);. Age and the years of schooling were factors associated with inadequate literacy in adults with hypertension (p<0.0001). Inadequate literacy was found in more than 70% of the hypertensive patients investigated. This finding reinforces the need to improve the self-care skills of hypertensive patients, especially the older ones and those with few years of schooling.

Factors Associated with Visual Impairment in Chinese American Adults: The Chinese American Eye Study

ABSTRACT Purpose To assess associations between multiple factors comprising a conceptual model of visual impairment (VI) in a population of Chinese Americans (CAs), and identify independent VI risk factors. Methods A population-based study of 4582 CAs aged 50 years and older residing in Monterey Park, California. A comprehensive eye examination was performed. VI was defined as best-corrected visual acuity <20/40 (US definition) in the better-seeing eye. Results Of five independent risk factors identified, age and self-reported history of ocular disease were most strongly associated with VI. Participants 70 years and older were 10.0 times as likely to have VI compared to those in their 50s (95% confidence interval (CI) 4.0–25.0), while those with a history of ocular disease were 4.2 times as likely to have VI (95% CI 2.2–7.8). Additional risk factors included low education (OR 2.8, 95% CI 1.7–4.8), low acculturation (OR 5.9, 95% CI 2.0–17.3) and self-reported history of diabetes (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.2–3.2). A comparison to data previously described from the Los Angeles Latino Eye Study indicated that four of the factors that predict VI risk in CAs also represent clinically relevant risk factors for VI in Latinos. Conclusions Screening programs for individuals with advanced age and a history of ocular disease have the potential to reduce the burden of VI in CAs, as do educational programs for those with fewer years in school, a history of diabetes, and low acculturation.

Health-related quality of life among people who use methamphetamine.

We assessed health-related quality of life amongst people who use methamphetamine, examined how this related to different patterns of methamphetamine use and what other factors were associated with decrements in quality of life in this sample. A cross-sectional survey of 169 at least monthly methamphetamine users. Health utility scores were derived using the Assessment of Quality of Life - 4D for the past month (0 reflects death and 1 represents full health; the population mean Assessment of Quality of Life score in Australia is 0.81). Dependence on methamphetamine was a score of 4+ on the Severity of Dependence Scale. Other measures included days of methamphetamine use and other substance use in the past month, injecting methamphetamine, demographics, psychiatric symptoms (score of 4+ on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale items) and a lifetime DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia. The mean utility score was 0.52 (95% confidence interval 0.48-0.56). Methamphetamine dependence was associated with lower utility (-0.10, P = 0.003) after adjustment for other univariate correlates of utility. Other factors independently associated with lower utility were being a woman (-0.14, P < 0.001), depression (-0.10, P = 0.008), self-neglect (-0.08, P = 0.035), schizophrenia (-0.17, P = 0.003) and fewer years of schooling (0.02 per year, P = 0.037). We found poor quality of life in this sample of methamphetamine users relative to the general population, this being associated with both dependence on methamphetamine and other factors, particularly poor mental health. We also found poorer health amongst women.

US Criminal Deportations and Human Capital in Central America

In this paper I ask whether peer effects generate changes in education investments in the areas where deported criminals are located in Central America using administrative data in El Salvador. I exploit the increase in criminal deportations from the United States in 1996 to analyze how individuals who grew up in municipalities affected by gangs in 1996 have fewer years of schooling when they are young adults. I find that individuals who were exposed during childhood to gang leaders have less schooling than those who were older than 16 in 1996 when the law was passed.

Climate change and educational attainment in the global tropics

Climate change may negatively impact education among children via exposure to extreme temperature and precipitation conditions. We link census data from 29 countries across the global tropics to high-resolution gridded climate data to understand how climatic conditions experienced in utero and during early childhood affect educational attainment at ages 12 to 16. We show that exposure to higher-than-average temperatures during the prenatal and early-life period is associated with fewer years of schooling in Southeast Asia. In this region, a child who experiences temperatures 2 SDs above average is predicted to attain 1.5 fewer years of schooling than one who experiences average temperatures. In addition, early-life rainfall is positively correlated with attainment in West and Central Africa as well as Southeast Asia, and negatively correlated with attainment in Central America and the Caribbean. While we expected that children from the most educated households would be buffered from these effects, we discover that they tend to experience the greatest educational penalties when exposed to hotter early-life conditions and, in some regions, to drier conditions. For example, among the most educated households in West and Central Africa, predicted schooling is 1.8 years lower for children who experience early-life rainfall 2 SDs below average versus 2 SDs above average, while the difference is just 0.8 years for children from the least educated households. These results suggest that development and educational gains in the tropics could be undermined by climate change, even for better-off households.

Present Bias and Underinvestment in Education? Long-Run Effects of Childhood Exposure to Booms in Colombia

This paper examines the long-run impacts of income shocks by exploiting variation in coffee cultivation patterns within Colombia and world coffee prices during cohorts' school-going years in a differences-in-differences framework. The results indicate that cohorts who faced higher returns to coffee-related work during school-going years completed fewer years of schooling and have lower income in adulthood. These findings suggest that leaving school during temporary booms results in a significant loss of long-term income. This is consistent with the possibility that students may ignore or heavily discount the future consequences of dropout decisions when faced with immediate income gains.

Early Rainfall Shocks and Later-Life Outcomes: Evidence from Colombia

Abstract This paper uses birth cohorts spanning several hundred locations over 40 years to examine the long-term consequences of in utero exposure to abnormal rainfall events in Colombia. The identification strategy exploits exogenous variation in extreme droughts or floods experienced by individuals while in utero in their birth location. The results indicate that individuals prenatally exposed to adverse rainfall shocks are more likely to report serious mental illness, have fewer years of schooling, display increased rates of illiteracy, and are less likely to work. These results are larger in magnitude for individuals born in areas with a higher risk of malaria, which is consistent with the notion that exposure to infectious and parasitic diseases may play an important role.

Too hot to handle: The effects of high temperatures during pregnancy on adult welfare outcomes

This paper studies the long-term effects of high temperatures during pregnancy on later-life outcomes for Chinese adults. Adults experienced one additional high-temperature day during in utero period, on average, attain 0.02 fewer years of schooling, increase the risk of illiteracy by 0.18%, achieve lower standardized word-test score by 0.48%, and are shorter by 0.02 cm. The impacts are greater in the first and second trimesters. Additionally, we find that income effects represent one important channel to explain the adverse effects of hot weather. Back-of-the-envelope predictions suggest that by the end of the 21st century, a 0.14–0.54 reduction in years of education and a 0.21–0.84 cm reduction in height is likely to result from climate change, ceteris paribus.

Neurocognitive profiles in adolescents and young adults with congenital heart disease

Introduction and ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were to assess the neuropsychological performance (NP) of adolescents and young adults with congenital heart disease (CHD), comparing them with a group of healthy controls, to determine whether there are different neurocognitive phenotypes in CHD, and to identify their relation to sociodemographic, neonatal, clinical and psychological adjustment variables. MethodsA total of 217 CHD patients (116 male, aged 15.73±2.68 years) and 80 controls (35 male, age 16.76±2.22 years) underwent an extensive neuropsychological assessment and analysis of psychological adjustment. ResultsCHD patients had significantly poorer NP than healthy controls in all neurocognitive domains. Three different phenotypes of NP in CHD patients were identified: non-impaired (NI), moderately impaired (MI) and globally impaired (GI). They differed in all dimensions of NP. The GI cluster showed fewer years of schooling (p=0.025) and lower neonatal indicators such as head circumference (p=0.019), 1-min Apgar score (p=0.006), birth weight (p=0.05) and length (p=0.034) than the NI cluster. In the MI and GI clusters, there were more cyanotic forms of disease, including tetralogy of Fallot and transposition of the great arteries. The GI cluster presented more difficulties with psychological adjustment, including social (p=0.038), attention (p=0.001) and aggressive (p=0.003) problems. ConclusionsCHD patients have poorer NP than controls. NP in the CHD group can be classified in three clusters that reflect different levels of neuropsychological functioning, which is sensitive to social, neonatal and psychological adjustment variables.

Multigenerational socioeconomic attainments and mortality among older men: An adjacent generations approach

Background: Recent work in stratification and demography argues for the importance of multiple familial generations in status attainment and other transmission processes. Health disparities research in this area generally assumes that the rewards of attainment are paid forward across generations, meaning grandparent and parent achievements give children a health advantage. However, an emerging literature suggests that mortality risk in old age may be more closely related to the attainments of parents and adult children. Objective: We develop a new approach to understanding family attainments and mortality in later life and test the multigenerational structure of health disparities suggested by the long arm, personal attainment, and social foreground perspectives. Methods: The analysis uses nearly complete mortality data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men, a representative sample of US men aged 45 to 59 in 1966. Results: We find that older men with parents who farmed had a median age of death that was 1.3 years higher than those who had parents with manual occupations, and men with adult children who had 16 or more years of schooling had a median age of death almost 2 years higher than those with children with 12 or fewer years of schooling. Conclusions: We find evidence of a three-generation model in which parent occupation, personal wealth, and adult child attainments are independently associated with older men’s mortality. Contribution: These findings highlight the relevance of adjacent generations for health and mortality in later life and the importance of historical context for accurately measuring socioeconomic attainments in different generations and cohorts.

The Educational Consequences of Adolescent Childbearing and Union Formation in Brazil.

While Brazil has high rates of adolescent fertility for its below-replacement total fertility rate, we know little about the causal effects of adolescent childbearing and adolescent union formation for women's education. In this paper, we examine unique data from the 2013 School-to-Work Transitions Survey to address the consequences of adolescent childbearing and adolescent union formation on educational outcomes of Brazilian young women. We apply several analytical strategies to address the endogeneity between adolescent childbearing and educational outcomes. Our findings suggest that childbearing during the teenage years is detrimental to the educational attainment of Brazilian women, and that educational disadvantages persist once we take into account mother's selection into adolescent childbearing. The penalty for adolescent mothers ranges from -1.66 to -1.80 fewer years of schooling and from 41 to 35 percent difference in the probabilities of graduating from high school. Additional findings show that marital unions among adolescent mothers have a compounding role at further hindering women's educational progress. Combined, our findings suggest that young mothers, particularly those in a marital union, face additional layers of disadvantages, demonstrating that early family formation is a meaningful stratifier for women in an already highly-stratified society.

Factors predicting out-of-school suspensions for young children

IntroductionDespite limited evidence supporting the effectiveness of out-of-school suspension for rectifying behavioural issues, the practice continues. Certain demographic factors (male, ethnic minority, low SES) predict suspensions; however, developmental and family factors can also play a role. Knowledge of these factors may inform alternative practices aimed at limiting the practice of suspension.&#x0D; Objectives and ApproachThis study investigated the relationship between out-of-school suspensions and demographic, developmental, and family factors. Children suspended in early schooling may be particularly at risk of poor school outcomes; thus, our sample includes children in the first years of school. Linked administrative data were obtained for 14,269 children enrolled in grade 3 at public schools in Western Australia. Multilevel logistic regressions were run, grouped by school, with out-of-school suspensions predicted by: child and parent demographic characteristics; a measure of children’s school-entry development (the Australian Early Development Census); and indicators of family risk (parental psychiatric hospitalizations, parental criminal offending, child maltreatment).&#x0D; ResultsApproximately 2% of children had been suspended at least once by grade 3. Aboriginal children, boys, and children attending schools with high levels of socioeconomic disadvantage had significantly increased odds of being suspended from school (2 times, 6 times, and 3 times increase, respectively). Furthermore, children considered socially and emotionally vulnerable at school-entry were around 3 times more likely than their peers to be suspended in the first few years of school. Parental psychiatric hospitalizations, parental criminal offending, and child maltreatment all significantly predicted out-of-school suspensions. Odds increased exponentially with each additional family risk factor experienced in early childhood. Children experiencing all three family risk factors were almost 7 times more likely than their peers to be suspended at least once by grade 3.&#x0D; Conclusion/ImplicationsOur results provide further justification for the implementation of alternatives to out-of-school suspension, as children who would most likely benefit from a stable, nurturing school environment were significantly more likely to be suspended. Schools need to be better supported by inter-agency collaboration to manage the complex needs of vulnerable children.

An epidemiological study of anthropometry and physical activity of mothers as determinants of low birth weight in Wardha, India

Introduction: Low Birth Weight(LBW) bring on an impaired growth to infant with its associated risk factors of higher mortality rate, increased morbidity, impaired mental development and risk of chronic diseases in adult hood. LBW babies are likely have developmental delays leading to start school late, dropout from school, complete fewer years of schooling, grow into stunted adult, and suffer from lower productivity and chronic diseases in future life. Prevalence of LBW in India is 22% as reported by NFHS III. Objective: To study the anthropometric and physical determinants of LBW babies in Wardha district,India. Material and Methods: A Case Control study conducted in Government Hospital Wardha, to explore the determinants of LBW. Cases were defined as single live born baby who had birth weight &gt;2500 gms as per WHO. One control was selected for each case from consecutive live birth, who had birth weight &gt;2500 gms in the same hospital. Information was obtained by indepth maternal interview, and medical records. Anthropometric measurement of mother and newborn baby was taken within 48 hrs after birth. Data entered and analysis done in the computer using Epi-Info 6.04. Results: Among various anthropometric and physical determinants of LBW studied, the determinants which found significant were maternal weight less than 40 Kg, gestational weight gain of &lt;6 Kg, maternal BMI &lt;18.5 Kg/m2 and MUAC &lt; 23 cm, previous history of giving birth to LBW babies, maternal anemia, physical activity during pregnancy, less additional calories consumption during pregnancy. Conclusions: Maternal weight, gestational weight, maternal BMI. MUAC, previous history of LBW babies, maternal anemia, physical activity during pregnancy, less additional calories consumption during pregnancy were found significant determinants in present study.

The effects of in utero exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic on family formation

A growing literature ties in utero conditions to life course outcomes, including education, earnings, and adult health and mortality. A smaller literature has begun to examine the intergenerational impacts of in utero conditions. A link between these two literatures—the impacts of in utero conditions on family formation—has had few examinations but offers a potential set of mechanisms for the intergenerational reach of early conditions. This paper draws from the 1960 US Decennial Census to examine whether individuals exposed in utero to the 1918/19 influenza pandemic had different family formation patterns than adjacent unexposed cohorts. The findings suggest small overall effects on marriage rates, number of children, and several measures of “type” of spouse for men, but moderate effects for women. For example, women with in utero exposure during their first trimester marry men with 0.2 fewer years of schooling than those not exposed. The findings show that exposed individuals have spouses with lower schooling than unexposed counterparts, this effect is particularly large for women, and it increases the likelihood of marrying spouses with very low levels of schooling.

Determinants of response of street food entrepreneurs in Ghana to business management training

PurposeConsidering the fact that business management training has the potential to improve performance of micro and small enterprises, it is surprising why participation rates in most freely offered management training courses remain low. The purpose of this paper is to explore factors that determine an invitee’s decision to participate in a capacity building management training for street food entrepreneurs in Ghana.Design/methodology/approachUsing data from a baseline survey, the study invited 314 street food entrepreneurs, selected through a stratified random technique from a list of 516 eligible food entrepreneurs. Training participants were invited to the programme through official invitation letters which were hand-delivered. Data on reasons for non-participation were collected either through phone interviews or on-site visit when a vendor could not be reached on phone. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise characteristics of vendors and businesses as well as reasons for non-participation while probit model was used to estimate determinants of participation.FindingsThe study found that whereas vendors with higher formal education better appreciate the benefits of education and training, their counterparts with fewer years of schooling do not. The latter’s perceived knowledge deficiencies appear to explain the difference in participation rates. Also, total workforce does not necessarily increase the probability of participation, especially when there are no trusted workers in the business who will take over critical activities such as handling of finances in the absence of the owner. The study also found that distance between vending premises and training centres had significant negative effects on vendors’ participation in the training programme.Research limitations/implicationsThe external validity of the study findings and conclusions may not be limited to all informal sectors of the developing economies due to high degree of heterogeneity of the informal economy.Originality/valueThe study focusses on an informal sector in developing country dominated by women. The study focusses on understanding informal entrepreneurs’ response to formal training.

The impact of commercial television on turnout and public policy: Evidence from Norwegian local politics

We investigate the impact of commercial television on political participation and local policy outcomes. Exploiting a geographically staggered expansion of cable television after the liberalization of Norwegian broadcasting in 1981, we show that higher cable television penetration significantly reduced turnout in municipal elections. Using individual-level data, we find that cable television coverage had a negative effect on the extent to which respondents were exposed to political information through mass media. The effect is more pronounced for individuals that on average watch more cable television; namely individuals with fewer years of schooling. Consistent with an increased difference in political participation and exposure to information between more and less educated groups, we find that commercial television led to reduced public spending and increased the share spent on education. The results are evidence that commercial mass media can influence electoral politics by reducing political participation and exposure to information of its target audiences.

The educational impact of shocks in utero: Evidence from Rwanda

Research on the impact of violence and conflict on education typically focuses on exposure among a cohort of school-aged children. In line with the fetal origins hypothesis, this paper studies the long-run effect of exposure to adverse maternal health shocks while still in the womb. Exploiting the sudden and discrete nature of the Rwandan genocide and an identification strategy based on temporal and spatial variation, we find that the cohort in utero during the genocide reported on average 0.3 fewer years of schooling in the 2012 Rwanda. Population and Housing Census and was 8% points less likely to finish primary school relative to the cohort in utero just a couple of months later.

How Does the Patient React After Reading the Informed Consent Form of a Gynecological Surgery? A Qualitative Study.

To analyze the reaction of women after reading the Informed Consent Form (ICF) before undergoing elective gynecological/urogynecological surgeries. A qualitative study with 53 women was conducted between September 2014 and May 2015. The analysis of the content was conducted after a scripted interview was made in a reserved room and transcribed verbatim. We read the ICF once more in front of the patient, and then she was interviewed according to a script of questions about emotions and reactions that occurred about the procedure and her expectations about the intra- and postoperative period. The women had a mean age of 52 years, they were multiparous, and most had only a few years of schooling (54.7%). The majority (60.4%) of them had undergone urogynecological surgeries. Hysterectomy and colpoperineoplasty were the most frequent procedures. Ten women had not undergone any previous abdominal surgery. Fear (34.6%) was the feeling that emerged most frequently from the interviews after reading the ICF, followed by indifference (30.8%) and resignation (13.5%). Nine women considered their reaction unexpected after reading the ICF. Three patients did not consider the information contained in the ICF to be sufficient, and 3 had questions about the surgery after reading the document. Reading the ICF generates fear in most women; however, they believe this feeling did not interfere in their decision-making process.

The Returns to Parental Health: Evidence from Indonesia

This paper investigates the economic returns to parental health. To account for potential endogeneity between parental health and child outcomes, we leverage longitudinal microdata from Indonesia to estimate individual fixed effects models. Our results show that the economic returns to parental health are high. We show that maternal health not only significantly affects her children's health, but is also intrinsically linked to her spouse's labor market status and earnings. Paternal health appears to be more linked to child schooling outcomes, especially for girls. When both parents are in poor health, the negative effects on their children are compounded. Additionally, the consequences of poor parental health are enduring. Longer-run effects of poor parental health manifest in a lower likelihood of high school completion, fewer years of schooling, and poorer adult health.