Fertility Choices Research Articles

Organic Fertilizer Comparison on Growth and Nutrient Content of Three Kale Cultivars

Selecting supplemental nitrogen (N) fertilizer for use on certified organic farms can be difficult and confusing. There are many options commercially available to farmers with similar N concentrations but widely different ingredients. Experiments were conducted in a certified organic field and high tunnels near Fort Collins, CO in 2013 and 2014 to evaluate the impact of organic fertilizers on yield and nutrient concentrations of three kale (Brassica oleracea and Brassica napus) cultivars. This study includes an organic fertilizer (cyano-fertilizer), which is produced on-farm by growing N-fixing cyanobacteria (Anabaena cylindrica) in raceway ponds. The three fertilizer treatments were hydrolyzed fish emulsion, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) meal, and cyano-fertilizer. These were applied at rates calculated by subtracting soil nitrate concentration from a target 50 mg·kg−1 to the depth of 6 inches of soil. Cyano-fertilizer and hydrolyzed fish emulsion were applied in liquid form, while the alfalfa meal was incorporated dry into the soil before planting. Biweekly measurements of plant height were taken on three cultivars of kale: Dinosaur, Red Russian, and Winterbor. Leaf weight, leaf area, and N, iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn) concentrations were measured during three to four monthly harvests each year. Organized in a split-plot experimental design, there were three treatment replications with subplots of different kale cultivars. Fertilizer treatment did not significantly affect plant height, leaf weight, leaf area, or plant N, Fe, and Zn concentrations. However, there were cultivar differences in plant height, leaf area, and yield. Kale cultivar choice had a larger impact on yield and plant nutrient concentrations than fertilizer choice, because fertilizers were applied at similar N rates.

Le scelte di fertilità e la durata della maternità in Italia: vincoli economici e norme sociali

Italy is characterised by both a low level of female participation in the labour market and a low fertility rate. At the same time, many women stay out of the la-bour market after the childbirth for a much longer period of time than the com-pulsory maternity leave prescribes. This way, they put at risk the possibility of re-entering the labour market after the career break, as well as damage their future career opportunities. In this paper we use a two-stage estimation process to ana-lyse the factors that influence the choice of having children first and then the choice of the period of time to devote to raising them out of the labour market. In particular, we focus on the role of factors hitherto neglected by the literature, such as prevailing local social norms and women’s reproductive health. The re-sults show that economic constraints do not have a strong impact on fertility choices (which seem to be more influenced by individual preferences and social norms), but significantly influence the length of the maternity period. The worsen-ing of women’s reproductive health, also due to the increase in the average age at childbirth, seems to significantly lengthen the period of time spent out of the la-bour market after the childbirth.

Dynamic analysis of demographic change and human capital accumulation in an R&D-based growth model

Employing an overlapping-generations model of R&D-based growth with endogenous fertility, mortality, and education choice, we examine how demographic changes and human capital accumulation influence R&D activity. We show that multiple steady states can exist in this economy. One steady state has a high level of human capital and the other has a low level. In the steady state with high (low) level of human capital, there is a high (low) level of R&D activity, a low (high) fertility rate, and a high (low) old-age survival rate. In addition, we show that the government can steer an economy away from a poverty trap trajectory by investing in public health. We also show that an improvement in the government’s public health policy has an inverted U-shaped effect on the growth rate at the steady state.

Social capital and the use of organic fertilizer: an empirical analysis of Hubei Province in China.

In the context of zero chemical fertilizer growth, using organic instead of chemical fertilizers is the inevitable future of agricultural production, and social capital may be an important factor that affects whether farmers choose organic or chemical fertilizer. Based on a survey data from 1116 farmers in Hubei Province, this paper analyzes the influence of social capital and its three sub-dimensions (political identity, interpersonal trust, and relationship network) on farmer fertilizer choice. It also explores the mechanism and the degree of influence and examines how the primary effect differs across three sub-dimensions of social capital. The results show the following: (1) Social capital has a positive and statistically significant effect on the adoption of organic manure; (2) Three sub-dimensions of social capital promote the use of organic manure, although there are large differences in their degrees of influence. In detail, interpersonal trust had the greatest effect, followed by political identity, while relationship network was less effective; (3) Social capital has a positive influence on farmers' opportunity perception, risk aversion, production skills, and production supply, which further affect farmers' fertilizer choices. This paper enriches the research findings of social capital theory on the micro level of farmers' green production behavior. The conclusion is of great practical significance to activate the substitution of organic fertilizer for chemical fertilizer and promote the green transformation of agricultural development.

Through scarcity to prosperity: Toward a theory of sustainable growth

To make progress toward a comprehensive theory of sustainable growth, this paper integrates fertility choice and exhaustible resource dynamics in a tractable model of endogenous technological change. The model identifies conditions under which the interdependence of population, resources and technology produces a transition that consists of three phases: (1) an initial phase where agents exploit exhaustible natural resources to support population growth; (2) an intermediate phase where agents turn on the Schumpeterian engine of endogenous innovation in response to population-led market expansion; (3) a terminal phase where knowledge accumulation becomes the sole engine of growth. The last phase is crucial: not only economic growth no longer requires growth of physical inputs, but technological change also compensates for the exhaustion of the natural resource.

Women's Inheritance Rights and Fertility Decisions: Evidence from India

We analyze the impact of the Hindu Succession Amendment Act (HSAA) that mandated equal inheritance rights for women, on their fertility choices in the context of son-preference in rural India. We use the NFHS-3 data and exploit the variation in timing of the introduction of the HSAA across states to employ a difference-in-difference strategy. While both reform and non-reform women had similar son preference and desire for children, treated women, on average, had 0.8 additional children than their counterparts. We find evidence that the fertility increase was a result of women being able to use the stopping rule more effectively to achieve son-preference. Women impacted by the reform also had a higher proportion of sons for a given family size, indicating stronger son preference among treated women. Finally, we find the amendment lead to a decrease in domestic violence, improvements in maternal health, and women's decision-making power. This greater empowerment could be the potential mechanism that allowed women to increase fertility to realize their son preference.

Continuity Crisis: The History and Sexual Politics of an American Jewish Communal Project

Continuity Crisis:The History and Sexual Politics of an American Jewish Communal Project1 Lila Corwin Berman (bio), Kate Rosenblatt (bio), and Ronit Y. Stahl (bio) For decades, rumors about the sexual impropriety of certain high-profile men in Jewish studies and Jewish communal institutions circulated through whisper networks. In the ferment of #MeToo, a movement that erupted in the fall of 2017 to tackle rampant but unaddressed sexual harassment and assault, these hushed voices became louder.2 Amplified by a public chorus of people fed up with silence around sexual violence, women in Jewish studies began to speak out.3 The following summer, in July 2018, investigative journalist Hannah Dreyfus reported that eight women had accused sociologist Steven M. Cohen of sexual harassment.4 Much like in other #MeToo cases, the immediate response to the allegations against Cohen drew focus to individual misconduct and traumas. Missing from this outcry was an examination of the broad historical structures and narratives that enabled the harassment of Jewish women by other Jews in Jewish communities (academic and otherwise) to flourish. We—three historians—collaborated on an opinion piece, published in the Forward the day after the Cohen story broke. Foregrounded in [End Page 167] the breaking news and Dreyfus's extraordinary reporting, our article sought to open new conversations by highlighting "the troubling gender and sexual politics long embedded in communal discussions of Jewish continuity and survival."5 We welcome the invitation to revisit our Forward article here not because we wish to rehash a painful moment in many individuals' lives, but rather because we believe that power, expertise, and gender norms are operative and entangled forces in Jewish studies and Jewish communal life deserving of historically grounded analysis. Undoubtedly, a full accounting of individual perpetrators and harms is necessary, but it is not sufficient. In the wake of our opinion piece, some critics charged us with confusing the misdeeds of one individual with the workings of an entire communal structure. We believe this is far from the case. Indeed, our analysis of the historical context in which this particular episode occurred reveals the shortsightedness of an individualized and ahistorical approach. Here we have expanded our historical discussion to demonstrate more clearly how American Jewish continuity discourse was embedded within patriarchal and misogynistic structures.6 A Jewish continuity paradigm emerged forcefully in the 1970s as a set of expert pronouncements and community policies that treated women and their bodies as data points in service of a particular vision of Jewish communal survival. As social scientist Michal Kravel-Tovi proposes, contrary to imagining numbers and data as "dry"—"objective, straightforward, and factual"—we would do better to acknowledge their "wetness": the "affective work invested by the leaders of the American Jewish community in the production and distribution of population statistics."7 Condemning intermarriage and decrying low child-bearing rates became signature features of the affective work of Jewish communal research. As it moved toward paradigmatic status—encapsulating and naturalizing a way of thinking and capable of controlling discourse and resources—Jewish continuity fixed its normative and affective power on [End Page 168] women and their bodies. According to this paradigm, a thriving Jewish future required surveying, judging, and directing (or redirecting) women's marriage and fertility choices, regardless of the nature of these choices or whether they were choices at all. Instead, the continuity paradigm gained vital communal investment and made its patriarchal and misogynistic structures appear necessary and, often, unremarkable. In reflecting on the charged and critical responses we received to our Forward piece, we recognize the importance of revealing the construction and tenacity of the continuity paradigm and its deep entrenchment in the politics of Jewish social research and communal priority-setting. In so doing, we also identify its connections to and resonance with American political culture's twentieth-century emphasis on the family and "family values." In this article, we trace the emergence of the continuity paradigm to document its multiple contexts and historical contingencies. We conclude with an analysis of the criticism of our Forward article, arguing that some of this criticism made manifest the exact patterns we sought to document. ________ Neither the ideological framework of continuity nor...

Son preference, security concerns and crime against women: Expanding the public health discourse in India.

The phenomenon of son preference in India and the declining number of girls due to such a mindset has been an area of concern. While the Preconception and Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Act and the Beti Bachao and Beti Padhao scheme have been the mainstay of the government's initiative to counter this reproductive injustice, recognizing son preference and crime against women as public health concern opens up a new vista to counter this injustice. This study has identified that the public health system needs to engage with the following aspects to counter the problem: counseling services to women and men around fertility choices; access/availability to contraceptive choices; engaging men and boys in developing a response against violence; gender-sensitive training and capacity building; access to sexual and reproductive rights awareness amongst girls, women, boys, and men; and health insurance for senior citizens.

The One-Child Policy Amplifies Economic Inequality Across Generations in China

This study finds that China's one-child policy (OCP), one of the most extreme forms of birth control in recorded history, has amplified economic inequality across generations in China since its introduction in 1979. Poor Chinese families, whose fertility choices are less constrained by the OCP than rich ones, have more children but invest less in human capital per child. Since human capital is a major determinant of earnings, the income inequality persists and enlarges across generations as a consequence. Based on nationally representative longitudinal household survey data, our estimation results show that the OCP accounts for 32.7%-47.3% of the decline in intergenerational income mobility. The OCP has significant ramifications for Chinese society, not only intragenerationally but also intergenerationally.

Peer Effects and Fertility Preferences in China: Evidence from the China Labor-Force Dynamics Survey

Despite empirical evidence that individuals form their fertility preferences by observing social norms and interactions in their environments, the exact impact of these peer effects remains unclear. We thus use data from the 2014 and 2016 China Labor-force Dynamics Survey to investigate the association between community-level peer effects and fertility preferences among Chinese women aged 18-49. Whereas our baseline results indicate that 11.96% of these women would prefer 1 or no children, 74.1% would like 2 children, and 13.93% would prefer 3 or more children. A one unit increase in community-level peer fertility reduces the preference of wanting only one child by 14.3%, whereas it increases the probability of preferring three children by 9.3% and four or more children by 4.8%. Hence, overall, we find a relatively strong peer effect on individual fertility preferences in communities characterized by generally low fertility rates, which provides support for the role of social norms in the fertility choices of reproductive-aged Chinese women.

The Peace Baby Boom: Evidence From Colombia’s Peace Agreement With the FARC

Violent environments are known to affect household fertility choices, demand for health services and health outcomes of newborns. Using administrative data with a difference-in- differences, we study how the end of the 50 years old Colombian conflict with FARC modified such decisions and outcomes in traditionally affected areas of the country. Results indicate that generalized reductions in total fertility rate were slowed down for municipalities traditionally affected by conflict as a result of the permanent ceasefire declared by the FARC insurgency. Total fertility rate observed a relative increase of 2.6% in the formerly conflict-affected areas, in all age groups. However, no impact was found for demand of health care services, neonatal and infant mortality rates, or birth outcomes such as the incidence of low weight at birth or the percentage of preterm births. Our evidence shows that municipalities with mines victims and expelled population by forced displacement before the ceasefire have significantly higher total fertility rate in the four years following the ceasefire. We argue that the mechanism behind this result is the optimism to raise the children in a better environment due to the reduction in victimization in areas that experience FARC violence.

Life cycle assessment of California processing tomato: an evaluation of the effects of evolving practices and technologies over a 10-year (2005\u20132015) timeframe

PurposeCalifornia is the largest US producer of processing tomatoes, generating 96% of all domestic production and nearly 30% of global supply. Processing tomatoes are mostly processed into diced and paste products. Consumers and actors along their supply chains are increasingly interested in understanding their environmental burdens and identifying opportunities for improvements. This study applies life cycle assessment (LCA) to California diced and paste products over a 10-year timeframe to characterize current impacts and historical trends.MethodsThe LCA considers a scope from cradle-to-processing facility gate and accords with relevant Product Category Rules as published by the International EPD® System. Extensive primary data were collected for tomato cultivation for the years 2005 and 2015, and from processing facilities for 2005, 2010, and 2015 to understand the effects of evolving practices and technologies. We estimate crop and regional specific nitrous oxide and nitrate leaching emissions using a biogeochemical model, and the USES-LCA model is used to determine potential impacts from pesticide application. A suite of impact assessment categories is included based on the CML method (only global warming potential and freshwater consumption values are in the abstract).Results and discussionThe 2015 results of the study indicate that diced tomatoes are responsible for 0.16 kg CO2e and 71 L of freshwater per kg, and paste is responsible for 0.83 kg CO2e and 328 L of freshwater per kg. The main opportunities for improvement include natural gas use in the greenhouse phase, energy for irrigation pumping and fertilizer type in the cultivation phase, and natural gas and electricity use in the facility processing phase. These hotspots are consistent with studies of processing tomato in other parts of the world. Evaluating trends over time showed that technological improvements in the industry had reduced life cycle impacts; for example, global warming potential decreased by 12% for paste and 26% for diced products between 2005 and 2015.ConclusionsTrends over time show increasing efficiency at the cultivation and processing facility stages that have led to reductions in all impact categories evaluated. However, additional opportunities exist beyond efficiency improvements. Fertilizer and pesticide choice are potential opportunities for further reducing impacts. Also, the introduction of renewables in each phase of the supply chain (solar-powered irrigation pumps and onsite solar energy generation for facilities) could reduce the overall supply chain GWP100 impacts by 9–10%.

A Dynamic Analysis of Maternal Fertility Choices and Child Health in South Africa

The relationship between household size and future health outcomes for children is of immense interest to economists, demographers and policy-makers especially in developing countries. One reason for this is that child health is a key determinant of future human capital. This is particularly important in South Africa with high levels of unemployment, poverty and gross income inequality. Moreover, the quantity-quality model of fertility indicates a trade-off of children’s welfare with increasing family size. However, despite the forgoing, relatively little empirical research has been done regarding this nexus, especially in developing countries. Furthermore, while the few studies have mainly relied on cross-sectional data, this study takes advantage of the availability of the recent National Income Dynamic Study (NIDS) panel data set to empirically assess this link. We make use of both the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) and the Control Function (CF) approaches to account for econometric issues such as heterogeneity and endogeneity. These results suggest fertility choices has a significant association with child health. Moreover, younger children are more likely to be affected by increased household size. These results are concordant with theoretical expectations. From a policy perspective, these findings indicate that intensified child support is likely to improve child health outcomes in South Africa, particularly among the black racial group where fertility is comparatively higher. Moreover, family planning programs especially in the rural areas of the country, should be promoted. In addition, the empowerment of women through provision of funding for schooling and skills development could also contribute to better child health outcomes.

Housework share and fertility preference in four East Asian countries in 2006 and 2012

Background: Previous research suggested that husbands’ participation in housework is positively associated with fertility choices for both women and men. We tested this association by using data of four East Asian countries. Objective: This paper examines whether the positive association between gender-equal sharing of housework participation and fertility intention in China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan has strengthened between 2006 and 2012. Methods: We harmonize two datasets, the 2006 East Asian Social Survey and the 2012 International Social Survey Programme. We employ OLS and ordered logit models estimators to test the association between husband’s housework participation and the ideal number of children. Results: In both 2006 and 2012, husband’s participation in housework is associated with both own and partner’s fertility intentions in 2006 and 2012. The association between the domestic division of labour and fertility has not changed between 2006 and 2012. Conclusions: Corroborating the findings of our earlier paper the results suggest that a more gender-equal domestic division of labour in East Asia is associated with higher fertility intentions in this region. The gender revolution framework offers a plausible explanation for the East Asian fertility trends between 2006 and 2012. The findings suggest that there is a stall in the pace of the gender revolution. Contribution: This paper provides a summary of the trends highlighted by the contributors to this special issue. This is also the first paper to look at the evolution of domestic division of labour and fertility preferences in four East Asian countries over time.

Single women and motherhood: right now or maybe later?

Purpose: The decision to have a child might be postponed by the lack of partner, and elective egg freezing (EEF) can afford single women more time to find a suitable companion to reach the desired family structure. Alternatively, some women decide to have a child on their own thorough in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intrauterine insemination (IUI) with donor sperm. This study investigates the motivations and personal characteristics of single women undergoing IVF/IUI or EEF.Materials and methods: This is a cross-sectional study including 281 heterosexual single women who underwent either IVF/IUI with donor sperm for solo motherhood (208) or EEF (73) in 2015 at a large fertility center. An anonymous electronic survey was sent after starting the treatment.Results: The most common reason for not having fulfilled the motherhood desire was lack of partner (72.4% IVF/IUI and 65.9% EEF). We found that women undergoing IVF/IUI report a longer motherhood desire, >10 years (71.3% vs. 54.3%), live closer to their families (75.5% vs. 56.5%), and perceive a stronger family support than women undergoing EEF (85.4% vs. 68.8%). Finally, 100% of EEF obviously knew about the possibility of IVF/IUI with donor sperm, while 59.9% of IVF/IUI knew about EEF.Conclusion: Our results underscore the relevance of family ties in the decision to undergo IVF/IUI as single women. Moreover, these women might not be fully informed about social freezing as an option to postpone motherhood. Health professionals should be aware of these differences when counseling single women on fertility choices.

Childhood mortality, intra-household bargaining power and fertility preferences among women in Ghana

BackgroundContinuing population growth could be detrimental for social and economic wellbeing. Understanding the factors that influence family planning decisions will be important for policy. This paper examines the effect of childhood mortality and women’s bargaining power on family planning decisions.MethodsData was from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). A sample of 3313 women in their reproductive age were included in this study. We created variables on women’s exposure to and experience of child mortality risks. Three different indicators of women’s bargaining power in the household were also used. Probit models were estimated in accordance with the nature of the dependent variable.ResultsResults from the probit models suggest that child mortality has a positive association with higher fertility preference. Also, child mortality risks and woman’s bargaining power play important roles in a woman’s fertility choices in Ghana. Women with higher bargaining power were likely to prefer fewer children in the face of child mortality risks, compared to women with lower bargaining power.ConclusionIn addition to public sensitization campaigns on the dangers of high fertility and use of contraceptives, the findings of this study emphasize the need to focus on reducing child mortality and improving women bargaining power in developing countries.

Toward a Theory of Fertility and Ethnic Social Capital

The purpose of this paper is to develop a conceptual model of ethnic fertility differentials that incorporates the intersection of both the macro societal influences as well as the micro actor level influences. It first contextualizes ethnic fertility differentials within the global fertility decline literature. Then it reviews the extant theories of fertility decline. It then turns to an examination of fertility choices in the developed world. A summary of three major approaches to ethnic fertility differentials is examined and then incorporated into a more eclectic perspective provided by Goldscheider. Finally, this paper merges the Goldscheider perspective with the social capital perspective, as applied to fertility decisions, into a conceptual model of ethnic fertility differentials. Lastly, the new conceptual model is used to reflect upon the current state of global fertility decline.

Bombs and Babies: Terrorism Increases Fertility in Nigeria

This paper studies the association between exposure to Boko Haram's attacks and households' fertility choices in Nigeria. In our model, parents decide not only how many children they want to have, but also how much they want to invest in them. The model's predictions suggest that households exposed to terrorism increase their number of children as a way to insure against future unexpected shocks and reduce investment in their offspring. We test the predictions of the model using geolocalized panel data linked to information on terrorist attacks that occurred in the region. Consistent with the theory, terrorism is found to increase fertility (proxied by the number of surviving children per household) and decrease parental investment (proxied by child malnutrition). The first association is robust to the use of difference-in-differences and instrumental variables models – and therefore can be given a causal interpretation – but the second is not.

The role of change in fertility desire on change in family planning use: A longitudinal investigation in urban Uttar Pradesh, India.

Background: Reproductive choice is one of the rights of any woman, but women are often ambivalent towards fertility desires and choice of contraception. Our study explores how the change in fertility desires influence the change in use of modern contraception over time in six cities of Uttar Pradesh, India. Methods : Data for this study comes from the Measurement, Learning and Evaluation (MLE) Project for Urban Health Initiative in six cities of Uttar Pradesh. Our study sample consists of 8735 women (weighted n=8655) who were fertile, non-sterilized and non-pregnant at the time of baseline survey. Potential bias due to lost to follow up was addressed using inverse probability weighing and then generalized estimating equations were applied to get odds for change in use of modern contraceptives. Results: Contraceptive use increased by different magnitudes from baseline to endline across all six cities. At baseline and endline, women who desired no more children reported a higher use of modern contraception than those who desired more children over time. Women from all cities who desired no more children at baseline had higher odds of modern contraceptive use than that of women who desired more children. The tempo of change in use of modern contraception over time among women with different fertility desires differed across the considered cities. Conclusion : Although there were city-wise differences observed, women's fertility intentions have an impact on their use of modern contraceptives over the time period between baseline to endline. To obtain greater insight into city-level differences, mixed method studies will be more effective.

The role of change in fertility desire on change in family planning use: A longitudinal investigation in urban Uttar Pradesh, India

Background: Reproductive choice is one of the rights of any woman, but women are often ambivalent towards fertility desires and choice of contraception. Our study explores how the change in fertility desires influence the change in use of modern contraception over time in six cities of Uttar Pradesh, India. Methods : Data for this study comes from the Measurement, Learning and Evaluation (MLE) Project for Urban Health Initiative in six cities of Uttar Pradesh. Our study sample consists of 8735 women (weighted n=8655) who were fertile, non-sterilized and non-pregnant at the time of baseline survey. Potential bias due to lost to follow up was addressed using inverse probability weighing and then generalized estimating equations were applied to get odds for change in use of modern contraceptives. Results: Contraceptive use increased by different magnitudes from baseline to endline across all six cities. At baseline and endline, women who desired no more children reported a higher use of modern contraception than those who desired more children over time. Women from all cities who desired no more children at baseline had higher odds of modern contraceptive use than that of women who desired more children. The tempo of change in use of modern contraception over time among women with different fertility desires differed across the considered cities. Conclusion : Although there were city-wise differences observed, women’s fertility intentions have an impact on their use of modern contraceptives over the time period between baseline to endline. To obtain greater insight into city-level differences, mixed method studies will be more effective.