Fennel Samples Research Articles

Toxicological analysis of metals content in agro-food wastes as possible supplement in animal feed

The agro-food surplus is considered the most abundant renewable resource, interesting for the economic and environmental impact, with a possible employment in different productive fields such as supplement in animal feed. For a safe and effective enhancement of agro-food wastes it is needed a toxicological analysis before of their employment, to avoid potential risks to animals, humans and environment. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the metals content (Cu, Fe, Zn, Mg, Na, K, Ca, Mn, Se, Zn, Co, Ni, V, Sb, Mo, Cr and Pb, Cd, As, Ba), in agro-food wastes through ICP-MS analysis. The results obtained showed the presence of metals analysed with a significant content of essential micro and macro-elements; with regard to toxic metals, only strawberries and fennel samples showed Pb levels above the MRL. These data confirm, from the toxicological point of view, a possible and safe reuse of the most of all agro-food wastes, as raw material at low cost and rich of essential nutrients and particularly as supplement in animal feed.

Effect of Different Soil Treatments on Production and Chemical Composition of Essential Oils Extracted from Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Origanum vulgare L. and Thymus vulgaris L.

The aim of the study was to investigate how essential oil production and associated chemical composition and related biological activity could be influenced by different cultivation treatments and distillation methods. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (fennel), Origanum vulgare L. (oregano) and Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) were cultivated in absence of any fertilizer (control) and in presence of three different fertilizers: a chemical one with augmented mineral phosphorus and potassium, a second added with hydrolyzed organic substance and mineral phosphorus and potassium (organic-mineral) and a third one treated with a high content of organic nitrogen of protein origin (organic). The plants were subjected to steam distillation using two modalities, recycled and continuous, to obtain 32 essential oil samples. Chemical composition analysis was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; in vitro antimicrobial activity was evaluated using a broth microdilution method. In general, the recycled distillation method appeared to have a slightly higher yield than the continuous method. The "mineral" and "organic-mineral" treatments resulted in a higher yield compared to the "organic" or "control" treatments, and this was particularly evident in the recycled method. The "control" plants had a lower yield of essential oils. Anethole (13.9-59.5%) and estragole (13.4-52.2%) were the main constituents of the fennel oils; p-cymene and its derivatives carvacrol and thymol were the main constituents of the oregano and thyme samples. The antimicrobial activity of the thyme oils on Staphylococcus aureus ranged from 0.31 to 0.16% (v/v); a lower effect of the oregano samples and no activity of the fennel samples were observed. The essential oils failed to inhibit the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains.

Chemical Profiling of Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum L., Apiaceae) Essential Oils and Their Isolation Residual Waste-Waters.

Sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) is a wild-growing halophyte used in cuisine, traditional medicine or cosmetic products for its beneficial nutritive value and pleasant sensory characteristics. This study aimed to investigate sea fennel essential oils (EOs) from different parts of the plant (flowers, leaves and stems) and the corresponding hydrodistillation by-products (residual water) to validate their potential use and application in different industries. EOs were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while the phenolic profile of the residual water was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and spectrophotometric methods. The EO analysis confirmed the presence of 14 compounds, dominated by sabinene (from 42.55 to 51.47%) and limonene (from 36.28 to 43.58%), while among the 12 detected phenolics, chlorogenic acid and its isomers (cryptochlorogenic and neochlorogenic acid) were found in the highest concentrations. Total phenolic, flavonoid and tannin contents were concentrated in the order flowers > leaves > stems. Although the sea fennel samples showed differences in chemical profiles, overall they were rich in bioactive compounds with relatively high amounts of key compounds with already proved good biological properties, especially in waste-water, indicating great potential for re-use in accordance with green processing technology trends.

Atropine and scopolamine occurrence in spices and fennel infusions

Tropane alkaloids (TAs) are toxic anticholinergic compounds that appear due to accidental contamination of foods with TA-producing plants. Atropine and scopolamine are the most common TAs and their maximum levels in certain foodstuffs have been recently regulated, including food supplements. TAs occurrence in commercial products and the transfer ratio to herbal infusions prepared from contaminated spices are of interest for exposure assessment of consumers. In this study, the occurrence of atropine and scopolamine was investigated in a total of 51 commercial spices of 6 types (ginger, cloves, fennel, cumin, aniseed, coriander) and a mix of spices and herbs (curry) purchased in Portugal (19 samples) and Spain (32 samples) in 2021. Results evidenced that more than half of the samples analysed (67%) were contaminated with one or both analytes. Fennel, cloves and coriander showed the highest concentrations ranging between 5-31 μg/kg, 8–28 μg/kg and 5–45 μg/kg, respectively, for the sum of atropine and scopolamine. On the other hand, the transfer ratio of the target analytes found in four naturally contaminated fennel samples was studied. Infusions were prepared according to International Standard ISO 3103 protocol, and a transfer ratio between 64 and 88% for atropine and between 47 and 57% for scopolamine was found.

Metabolite profiling and potential antioxidant activity of sixteen fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) populations growing wild in Tunisia

Sixteen wild Foeniculum vulgare Mill. populations native to Tunisia were investigated based on their phenolic profile of methanol extracts of seeds. The antioxidant potential was evaluated using four model systems such us total antioxidant capacity (TAC), DPPH-radical scavenging activity, ABTS test and reducing power assay (RPA). Results showed significant variations on extracts yields, total polyphenol content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC) and CTC (condensed tannin content). LC-MS analysis revealed the identification of 26 phenolic compounds. The cirsiliol was reported for the first time as the predominant phenolic compound in all fennel samples with range from 76.16 to 1021.70 µg/g Dry Extract (DE). The different methanol extracts exhibited strong antioxidant capacities with significant differences among locations. The BeniAyech population showed the highest antiradical capacity with IC50= 23.66 and 7.6 µg/mL for DPPH and ABTS tests, respectively. However, the strongest iron reduction capacity of the methanol extract from El Alia location has reached an efficacy concentration of EC50= 34.16 μg/mL similar to the butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT) standard. This investigation of Tunisian wild fennel showed the great potential of this species as natural source of bioactive antioxidants molecules for food industry.

The specifics of the manifestation of morphometric parameters of seeds in varietal populations of vegetable fennel (Foeniculum vulgare ssp. vulgare (Miller) Thell.)

Seven accessions of vegetable fennel selection of the Federal Scientific Vegetable Center for Ecology were studied, in which significant differences were found in the degree of expression of the main morphological parameters (the length of the seed, endosperm and embryo). The length of each seed, endosperm (on a longitudinal section), and embryo (after isolation) were analyzed sequentially. The experiment was repeated four times, in each repetition at least 30 seeds. The indices IE/S, IZ/E, IZ/S were calculated as the corresponding ratios of the length of the seed, endosperm, and embryo.Results. A group of vegetable fennel samples showed significant differences in the length of the seed, endosperm and embryo and their ratios. The variety Udalets used as a standard had a seed length of 6.85±0.164 mm, an endosperm length of 5.30±0.118 mm, and an embryo length of 2.35±0.093 mm. Population No. 17 of the FSVC and variety Corvette of the VNIIO selection and collection sample vr. 161 local populations from India significantly (by 18.5 and 17.5%) exceeded the average value of the standard for seed length at a 1% significance level, and the minimum value of the parameter (5.65±0.109) was noted in population No. 10 of the FSVC. The minimum endosperm length was noted in samples No. 10 (4.16±0.094) and No. 11 (5.11±0.167), which is 21.5 and 4.5% lower than the standard. The largest endosperm was possessed by the seeds of the Korvet variety (6.18±0.169 mm) and sample No. 17 of the FSVC (6.09±0.158 mm), which exceeds the standard by 16.6 and 14.9%. The remaining samples exceeded the standard in this indicator, but to a lesser extent. The length of the embryo only in the Corvette variety (2.38±0.097 mm) was at the level of the standard, and even slightly exceeded it. For the rest of the specimens, this indicator varied from 1.44±0.065 mm for No. 10 to 2.25±0.165 mm for No. 10, which is significantly 4.2–38.7 below the standard. Depending on the sample, the coefficient of variation of indicators changed for the length of the embryo (17.7-32.8%), the length of the endosperm (9.6-12.2%) and the length of the seed (8.6-12.8%). A close relationship was noted only between the length of the seed and the length of the endosperm, the correlation coefficient varied from 0.595 (No. 11 FSVC) to 0.837 (Udalets St). All values of the correlation coefficient had a positive value. According to the value of the Ie/z index, the seeds of accessions No. 15 of the FSVC and vr. 161 India. Seeds of accessions No. 17, No. 10 and varieties Corvette with an index from 0.30 to 0.39 are assigned to the third class. The fourth class includes seeds of the variety Udalets (St) and selection sample No. 11 of the FSVC.

Substantive Morphological Descriptions, Phylogenetic Analysis and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of Aspergillus Species From Foeniculum vulgare.

Ascomycetous fungi are found associated with a wide variety of substrates which range from fresh water to marine ecosystems, tropical to temperate forest soils and deserts, throughout the world over. These demystifying fungi exist as endophytes, pathogens and saprobes. They have been studied due to their ability to contaminate foods and feedstuffs, causing an elaboration of mycotoxins. The objectives of the study included extensive analyses of the morphological features of fungi, especially Aspergilli, which have been presented while studying them on specific mycological media. It is also an elaborate compilation of substantive macro- and micro-morphological characterization of different Aspergilli isolated from the spice Foeniculum vulgare used in India and other countries in the world. Further, a first of its kind attempt has been made to study their relative abundance and frequency of occurrence, molecular phylogeny and genetic relatedness to characterize the Aspergilli into specific sections, groups and clades. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis was carried out to evaluate the functional consequences of nucleotide variations, synonymous and non-synonymous mutations in the protein structure. The study resulted in a total of 3,506 Aspergillus isolates, which were obtained from seventy (70) fennel samples, representing 14 Aspergillus species. The two most frequently found species were A. niger and A. flavus with a relative abundance of 32.24 and 11.63%, respectively. The taxonomy and current placements have been reappraised with suggestions and prospects for future research from six sections namely Terrei, Flavi, Fumigati, Nidulantes, Nigri, and Versicolores. In addition, a total number of 27 isolates were studied and deposited at the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and five Aspergillus species have been identified and are being reported for the first time from the fennel seeds, based on partial sequence analysis of the official fungal barcode namely, Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) and a functional gene, beta tubulin gene locus, coupled with phenotypic characterization. SNPs for specific DNA regions have been used to identify variants in Aspergilli obtained from Indian fennel seeds for the first time. The need for a polyphasic approach of morphological identification and genetic characterization of Aspergilli from Foeniculum vulgare is addressed and presented here in adequate detail. Our current work makes extensive use of partial beta-tubulin gene sequences analyses to evaluate the association between SNPs in five Aspergillus species sections.

Identification of cumin and fennel from different regions based on generative adversarial networks and near infrared spectroscopy

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) are widely used seasonings and play a very important role in industries such as breeding, cosmetics, winemaking, drug discovery, and nano-synthetic materials. However, studies have shown that cumin and fennel from different regions not only differ greatly in the content of lipids, phenols and proteins but also the substances contained in their essential oils are also different. Therefore, realizing precise identification of cumin and fennel from different regions will greatly help in quality control, market fraud and production industrialization. In this experiment, cumin and fennel samples were collected from each region, a total of 480 NIR spectra were collected. We used deep learning and traditional machine learning algorithms combined with near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to identify their origin. To obtain the model with the best generalization performance and classification accuracy, we used principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce spectral data dimensionality after Rubberband baseline correction, and then established classification models including quadratic discriminant analysis based on PCA (PCA-QDA) and multilayer perceptron based on PCA (PCA-MLP). We also directly input the spectral data after baseline correction into convolutional neural networks (CNN) and generative adversarial networks (GAN). The experimental results show that GAN is more accurate than the PCA-QDA, PCA-MLP and CNN models, and the classification accuracy reached 100%. In the cumin and fennel classification experiment in the same region, the four models achieve great classification results from three regions under the condition that all model parameters remain unchanged. The experimental results show that when the training data are limited and the dimension is high, the model obtained by GAN using competitive learning has more generalization ability and higher classification accuracy. It also provides a new method for solving the problem of limited training data in food research and medical diagnosis in the future.

Furocoumarin Content of Fennel—Below the Safety Threshold

Furocoumarins are known for their phototoxic and potential carcinogenic effects. These types of compounds have previously been reported from fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), a widely used medicinal plant and spice; however, no reliable quantitative data are available on the occurrence of these compounds in fennel fruits. For the first time, we report a comprehensive analysis of fennel fruit samples of different origins, representing a wide range of accessions for their furocoumarin content. Psoralene, 5-methoxypsoralene (bergapten), and imperatorin contents of 33 fennel samples were analyzed using a sensitive liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method. When applied at the highest therapeutic dose described in the monograph issued by the European Medicines Agency, the furocoumarin content of the fruits ranged up to 1.22 μg/d, which is below the most restrictive recommendations. Based on our findings, fennel consumption can be considered as safe, at least based on its low furocoumarin content.

Chemical diversity of wild fennel populations from Turkey

Variation in Essential oil compositions of wild fennel samples from Tokat, Turkey (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) were studied in the research. Essential oil compositions of 37 fennel full maturated fruit samples from different localities were investigated by GC and GCMS. As results of the analyses, 17 components were identified, and estragole, a phenylpropanoid and isomers of trans-anethole, was major components in all samples following by fenchone. Although they have the same main component in all samples, Quantitative differences of main components caused chemical diversity as a result of cluster analysis. Two chemtypes, estragole with two sub-group and estragole/fenchone, were characterized in the research. Samples having high contents of major components with estragole and fenchone were selected for future studies.

Influence of the vegetation period on sea fennel, Crithmum maritimum L. (Apiaceae), phenolic composition, antioxidant and anticholinesterase activities

Since ancient times Crithmum maritimum L. (Apiaceae) or sea fennel, has been used in culinary practices and in folk medicine, but in the last few years it has become a rediscovered star of coastal cuisine. In this study, chemical composition (total phenolics, flavonoids, non-flavonoids, individual phenolic acids), antioxidant (FRAP, ORAC, DPPH, Briggs-Rauscher oscillating reaction) and cholinesterase (AChE, BuChE) inhibitory activities of the sea fennel samples collected in different seasons during a one-year vegetation period were investigated. The obtained results point out the great influence of the plant vegetation period on content of phenolics and consequently on plant biological activity. The sample collected before the flowering stage (in April) was, in most cases, superior in comparison to other extracts which opens a new realm of possibilities of its applications in different products and industries.

Searching for new sources of innovative products for the food industry within halophyte aromatic plants: In vitro antioxidant activity and phenolic and mineral contents of infusions and decoctions of Crithmum maritimum L.

Aromatic halophyte plants are an outstanding source of bioactive compounds and natural products with potential use in the food industry. This work reports the in vitro antioxidant activity, toxicity, polyphenolic profile and mineral contents of infusions and decoctions from stems, leaves and flowers of Crithmum maritimum L., an aromatic and edible maritime halophyte (sea fennel). Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) Dahlg. (rooibos) herbal tea was used as a reference. Sea fennel's tisanes, particularly from leaves, were rich in phenolic compounds and five of them (p-hydroxybenzoic and ferulic acids, epicatechin, pyrocatechol and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde) were here described in C. maritimum for the first time. Chlorogenic acid was the dominant phenolic determined. Na was the most abundant mineral in all tisanes followed by Ca and Mg in leaves' tisanes and K in flowers. Sea fennel's samples had a similar antioxidant activity than those from A. linearis, and had no significant toxicity towards four different mammalian cell lines. Altogether, our results suggest that sea fennel can be a source of products and/or molecules for the food industry with antioxidant properties and minerals in the form, for example, of innovative health-promoting herbal beverages.

Inhibitory effect of different fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) samples and their phenolic compounds on formation of advanced glycation products and comparison of antimicrobial and antioxidant activities

In this study, antioxidant, antibacterial and antiglycation properties of methanolic extracts of 23 fennel samples were evaluated and their major compounds were determined using HPLC analysis. The anti-glycative activity of extracts was evaluated in the bovine serum albumin (BSA)/glucose system. The level of glycation, conformational alterations and protein binding to RAGE receptors were assessed by Congo red binding assay and a brown staining method. Among samples, Kh1 from Iran possessed the highest TFC (14.8mgQUEg−1), TPC (262mg/g DW) and antioxidant activity (IC50=76μg/ml). The HPLC results revealed high variation in 23 fennel samples according to their major flavonoid (quercetin, apigenin and rutin) and phenolic (chlorogenic, caffeic and 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid) compounds. The antibacterial activity of methanolic extracts against four food-borne pathogens was also assessed. The seed extracts of Kh1 and En samples showed moderate to good inhibitory activities (MICs=62.5–125μg/ml) against three bacteria, as well as high anti-glycative activity.

Simultaneous Determination of Essential Oil Components and Fatty Acids in Fennel using Gas Chromatography with a Polar Capillary Column

Cultivated and wild growing samples of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Apiaceae) from R. Macedonia were studied for their volatiles and fatty acid composition. The main essential oil components isolated via hydrodistillation were: trans-anethole (>80%), estragole (< 6%), limonene (< 6%), anisaldehyde (< 1%) and 0.5 % fenchone. An alternative method for characterization of both the non-polar volatile and non volatile fractions was developed using n-hexane and dichloromethane (3:1, v/v) in a Soxhlet extraction followed by transesterification. The obtained extracts were then characterized and the dominant fatty acid was 18:1 (petroselinic and oleic acid) 75.0-82.8%, followed by 18:2 (linoleic acid) 10.8-16.2% and other fatty acids: palmitic (4.3-6.9%), stearic (1.2-1.7%) and myristic (0-2.9%). The results for the volatile fraction after Soxhlet extraction and transesterification did not significantly differ from results obtained after hydrodistillation, especially for the main components (trans-anethole, estragole, fenchone and limonene), implying that the developed method can be used for simultaneous determination of volatiles and fatty acids.

Preliminary Investigation of Medicinal Herb Adulteration Using Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography and Chemometric Analysis

Anise is frequently found among the ingredients described in the label of cosmetic products. However, the use of fennel instead of anise may occur due to the lower price of fennel. The main differences in volatile profile of anise and fennel fruits were, for the first time, evaluated using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometric detection (GC×GC/TOFMS) and chemometric analysis. Aproximately 950 peaks were found in chromatograms of each sample and Fisher ratio appointed 31 volatile analytes as the most discriminating between anise and fennel samples. These 31 compounds were used in principal component analysis and canonical discriminant analysis that designated seven compounds (estragole, methyl eugenol, 4,5-dehydro-isolongifolene, calamenene, linalool, β-ocimene and fenchol) as the most important to verify the use of fennel or anise in personal care products. Among these seven compounds, thrree coeluted with other compounds and were correctly identified only with the use of GC×GC/TOFMS.

Preparation of sulfonated graphene/polypyrrole solid-phase microextraction coating by in situ electrochemical polymerization for analysis of trace terpenes

In this study, a novel sulfonated graphene/polypyrrole (SG/PPy) solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coating was prepared and fabricated on a stainless-steel wire by a one-step in situ electrochemical polymerization method. Crucial preparation conditions were optimized as polymerization time of 15min and SG doping amount of 1.5mg/mL. SG/PPy coating showed excellent thermal stability and mechanical durability with a long lifespan of more than 200 stable replicate extractions. SG/PPy coating demonstrated higher extraction selectivity and capacity to volatile terpenes than commonly-used commercial coatings. Finally, SG/PPy coating was practically applied for the analysis of volatile components from star anise and fennel samples. The majority of volatile components identified were terpenes, which suggested the ultra-high extraction selectivity of SG/PPy coating to terpenes during real analytical projects. Four typical volatile terpenes were further quantified to be 0.2–27.4μg/g from star anise samples with good recoveries of 76.4–97.8% and 0.1–1.6μg/g from fennel samples with good recoveries of 80.0–93.1%, respectively.

Minimum Inhibitory and Bactericidal Concentrations (MIC and MBC) of Honey and Bee Propolis against Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR) Staphylococcus sp. Isolated from Bovine Clinical Mastitis

With the emergence of antibiotic-resistant Staph. sp., search for antimicrobial agents other than antibiotic is of great concern. The study aimed to determine both MIC and MBC of different honey samples against these strains. The study was conducted with 64 different Staph sp. isolated from bovine mastitis and tested in vitro against 11 antimicrobial agents. The most MDR strains (19) were tested in vitro against six honey batches; marjoram, cotton, two fennel samples and two different trefoil samples as well as against 10% propolis-fennel honey mixture. Both MIC & MBC of the tested honey samples against every tested strain were determined. Propolis-fennel honey mixture showed the lowest both MIC & MBC values against all Staph sp. all over the study with highly significant differences, while against different Staph sp., also it had the lowest MIC and MBC values against S. intermedius followed by S. aureus. The study revealed that among the different Staph. sp., S. aureus was the most sensitive species to the honey antimicrobial action with highly significant differences. The study concluded that all tested Staph. sp. –despite of being MDR- were sensitive to the antimicrobial activity of all tested honeys where S. aureus was the most sensitive one, while adding 10% propolis powder would maximize its antimicrobial activity significantly

Effect of boiling and roasting on the polyacetylene and polyphenol content of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) bulb

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare cv dulce.) is a hardy, perennial, umbelliferous (Apiaceae) plant as a source of the secondary metabolites group's polyacetylenes and polyphenols.The present study investigated the effect of boiling (100° C for 30min) and roasting (160°C for 15min) on the levels of these phytochemicals. Boiling resulted in a significant decrease in the levels of polyacetylenes (falcarinol, falcarindiol, falcarindiol- 3- acetate) and polyphenols (caffeic acid, gallic acid, apigenin-7-o-glucoside, ferulic acid, syringic acid, isovitexin, phloridzin). The loss of polyphenols from the boiled bulbs may be in part due to leaching of these components in the water. Roasting resulted in a significant decrease in falcarindiol, falcarindiol-3-acetate, and falcarinol by 81%, 78%, and 66% when compared to raw unprocessed fennel bulbs. In general, levels of all polyphenols decreased in roasted samples. The exceptions were ferulic acid which showed an increase and gallic acid which did not show any decrease. In line with results for polyphenol levels, antioxidant activity decreased following thermal processing, and the presence of hydroxymethylfurfural was confirmed in roasted samples of fennel.

Determination of coumarins and flavonoids in fruits of Apiaceae

Many species of Apiaceae were used in folk medicine, as spices in cookery, but also as official medicinal drugs [1, 2]. In this work, fruits of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), parsley (Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym.), celery (Apium graveolens L.), aniseed (Pimpinella anisum L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and dill (Anethum graveolens L.), were investigated on presence of coumarins and flavonoids. Thin layer chromatography was used as identification method. Coumarin determination was performed by TLC on silica gel GF254 with toluene:ether (1:1) as mobile phase and detection by fluorescence before and after spraying with ethanolic KOH (5%). Flavonoids were identified by TLC on cellulose-covered plates with n-buthanol: formic acid: glacial acetic acid: water (60:15:15:20) as mobile phase and detection by fluorescence before and after spraying with 1% W/V methanolic diphenylboryloxyethylamine. We detected scopoletine in samples of parsley and celery with corresponding Rf values 0.25, and umbelliferone in samples of aniseed and celery with Rf values 0.45, followed isobergapten in parsley with Rf 0.75 and isopimpinellin in celery and in dill with Rf 0.55. In samples of fennel, aniseed and dill we detected quercetin with Rf 0.70, and in samples of fennel and celery rutine with Rf 0.13. [3]

RESEARCH NOTE: MYCOTOXINS IN FENNEL SEED

ABSTRACTTen samples of fennel seed from fields in India were examined for the presence ofaflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. Five of the samples were fluorescent or became fluorescent during a 12 month storage period. Only aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1 were identified. One nonfluorescent sample contained detectable aflatoxin B1 after 12 months of storage.