Femininity Scales Research Articles

The Role of Masculinity in Children’s Bullying

The aim of the present study was to explore the association between gender role, in terms of self-attribution of masculine and feminine characteristics, and children's involvement in bullying problems during the elementary-school years. A total of 113, six- to ten-year-old children completed self-report measures of bullying and victimization and a masculinity–femininity scale. Their teachers provided ratings of pupils’ reactive and proactive aggressive behavior. Data from a hierarchical regression on bullying scores showed that, irrespective of sex, masculine traits predicted active bullying behavior. Moreover, bullying was also related to victimization and to teacher's evaluation of reactive aggression. Our findings suggest the need for longitudinal and cross-cultural studies in this line of research.

Masculinity and Femininity Predict Optimal Mental Health: A Belated Test of the Androgyny Hypothesis

In this study, we examined the relationship between psychological androgyny and optimal mental health in a sample of adults seeking career consultation (N = 154). Most earlier research on the subject employed self-report measures of well-being or adjustment. In this study, we employed an "observer-by-proxy" measure of optimal mental health that, although based on self report data, provides an empirically based estimate of ratings that clinicians would make using the California Q-set (Block, 1961/1978). High levels of both masculinity and femininity are associated with higher levels of optimal mental health. These findings represent a rare example of support for the additive androgyny hypothesis and argue for its further study. We also discuss the construct validity of the masculinity and femininity scales we used, and we argue for further study of our mental health measure.

Measurement of Agency, Communion, and Emotional Vulnerability With the Personal Attributes Questionnaire

Factor analytic studies of the 24-item Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence & Helmreich, 1978) have reported inconsistent results, and a previous confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated inadequate fit for factors corresponding to Masculinity, Femininity, and Masculinity–Femininity scales. In this research, we used CFA in a college sample (N = 382) to evaluate the 3-factor model, and we revised scales by eliminating 6 misspecified items. The revised model fit well in another college sample (N = 230). We renamed the revised scales Agency, Communion, and Emotional Vulnerability. In relation to Five-factor theory, Emotional Vulnerability and Communion correlated well with Neuroticism and Agreeableness, respectively, and Agency had moderate correlations with Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness. Psychometric results in the context of current theory suggest that Agency (Masculinity) may not be a fully adequate measure of the agency construct.

Do differences in sex hormones affect handwriting style? Evidence from digit ratio and sex role identity as determinants of the sex of handwriting

This study investigated whether there could be a biological determinant of the judged gender of handwriting. It further investigated the potential interplay between these variables and sex role identification. The biological marker used was 2D:4D digit ratio (of index to ring finger length) which is negatively associated with prenatal testosterone and positively with prenatal oestrogen. Handwriting samples of 120 participants (half of each sex) were presented on computer to be rated for gender by 20 raters. Feedback on accuracy was given after each trial. These raters accurately identified the gender of two thirds of the sample and the rated difference between the sexes was large ( d = 0.75). These ratings of handwriting gender correlated significantly with digit ratio and the femininity scale of the BSRI. A more conservative analysis this time within each sex found that women’s right hand digit ratio correlated with relative sexuality of handwriting, but there was no corresponding relationship for the males. These findings suggest that prenatal hormonal influences can affect later female handwriting performance and might even affect developmental inter-hemispheric differences, but do not appear to impact on males.

Coricladus quiteriensis gen. et sp. nov., a new conifer in Southern-Brazil Gondwana (Lower Permian, Paraná Basin)

A new taxon of conifers (Coricladus quiteriensis) is described based on megafloristic remains from the roofshale level at the Quiteria Outcrop (Rio Bonito Formation-Lower Permian-Southern Parana Basin-Rio Grande do Sul-Brazil). This megafloristic community is included in the Botrychiopsis Zone--Botrychiopsis valida Sub-Zone (Kungurian/Roadian). The assemblage, preserved as impressions, do not present remains of epidermic characters, and is composed mainly of isolated vegetative branches with spirally disposed acicular leaves, presenting a conspicuous central vein and also isolated fertile branches with sparse and irregular leaves and terminal cones. Leafless principal branches, organically connected with sterile and fertile branches, are rare. Reproductive feminine scales, disposed in a plane, are organized in lax terminal cones on branches, composed by 4 (four) distal ovuliferous scales, and 8 (eight) elliptical-elongated anatropous seeds. Paleoecological data pointed out to a mesophylous to higrophylous habitat in swampy environments.

Masculinity, Femininity, and the Bem Sex Role Inventory in Turkey

The aim of this study was to examine the masculinity and femininity scales of Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) among Turkish university students. Five hundred thirty-six students (280 men and 256 women) volunteered to complete the short-form of the BSRI and answer demographic questions. In factor analyses, the original factor structure (Bem, 1981) was found both in the men’s and women’s data. Comparisons of the factor structures with target rotation (Procrustes rotation) and comparison indexes showed no difference between the factor structures found among men and women. The internal consistency of the masculinity and femininity scales was acceptable, and t-tests showed that women scored higher on the femininity scale, and men scored higher on the masculinity scale. There were significant differences between men and women only on two masculinity items, but significant differences were found in 8 (of 10) femininity items.

Construction of Masochistic Femininity Scale

Construction of Masochistic Femininity Scale

Psychological Gender Mediates Sex Differences in Jealousy

The authors argue that, based on a biosocial model proposed by Wood and Eagly (2002), sex differences in reactions to sexual versus emotional infidelity should be mediated via gender-role related traits, whereas based on the assumption of jealousy as a specific innate module (JSIM; Buss et al. 1992), such mediation would not be predicted. In a survey study, 646 British adults reported whether sexual or emotional infidelity of an intimate partner would distress them more, and completed masculinity (M) and femininity (F) scales. Replicating previous work, females reported greater distress than males at emotional (vs. sexual) infidelity. Importantly, this sex difference was partially mediated by both M and F, which supports the biosocial model. However, biological sex remained a significant predictor even after M and F had been controlled for, suggesting that JSIM may explain part of the variance in the observed sex difference.

An Experimental Examination of the Effects of Sex and Masculinity/Femininity on Psychological, Physiological, and Behavioral Responses During Communication Situations

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of biological sex and masculinity/femininity on physiological (blink and heart rates), emotional (anxiety and mood), and behavioral responses (behavioral ratings of communication skills) during communication situations. Participants were 46 students in a Japanese university. They were categorized into 3 gender types—androgynous, stereotypical, and cross-gender on the Masculinity–Humanity–Femininity Scale (Ito, 1978) and the Social Skills Inventory (Riggio, 1986). The communication situations consisted of 2 experimental tasks (question-asking and self-introduction in front of a video camera). These two tasks were conducted in both Japanese and English. The results suggested that the cross-gender-type participants (feminine men and masculine women) showed increased blink and heart rates. For the behavioral ratings, the cross-gender type and the androgynous gender type were judged to have better communication skills than the stereotypical gender type. There was no significant difference in emotional responses among groups. The interaction of biological sex and masculinity/femininity may be associated with interpersonal adjustment and its stress responses.

Inventário masculino dos esquemas de gênero do autoconceito (IMEGA)

O propósito deste artigo foi elaborar e validar o Inventário Masculino dos Esquemas de Gênero do Autoconceito (IMEGA). Baseado nas estruturas fatoriais das escalas masculina e feminina do Inventário dos Esquemas de Gênero do Autoconceito (IEGA), este instrumento avalia os esquemas masculino e feminino do autoconceito dos homens. A amostra utilizada foi composta por estudantes universitários do sexo masculino. Para a validade de construto do IMEGA, foram realizadas análises fatoriais (Principal Axis Factoring - PAF), com rotações oblíquas e ortogonais, para ambas as escalas e análise da consistência interna dos fatores (alfa de Cronbach). Os resultados demonstram que ambas as escalas são compostas por estruturas multifatoriais que se assemelham às estruturas fatoriais do IEGA. Devidamente validado, o IMEGA pode ser utilizado para avaliar os esquemas masculino e feminino do autoconceito de indivíduos do sexo masculino.

Gender and masculinity–femininity ratings of tracheoesophageal speech

Tracheoesophageal (TE) speech is frequently characterized as low pitched and hoarse. In laryngeal speakers, these features are most often associated with males. Because lower pitch and hoarseness are anticipated for male and female TE speakers, one might predict that females are at risk for being perceived as male. The purposes of this pilot study were to assess the reliability and accuracy of listeners’ perceptions of TE speaker gender and to evaluate the relationship between gender ratings and masculinity–femininity ratings. Twenty-five naı̈ve listeners rated the gender and the masculinity–femininity of 12 TE speakers from audio recordings of a reading passage. Listeners were able to reliably rate gender and masculinity–femininity. They accurately identified speaker gender at a high rate that was comparable for males and females. However, female speakers, despite being accurately identified as female, were at an elevated risk of being rated as masculine or neutral on the masculinity–femininity scale. Learning outcomes: As a result of this activity, the participant will be able to: (1) describe the reliability and accuracy of listener perceptions of the gender and the degree of masculinity–femininity of TE speakers; and (2) discuss the relationship between TE speaker gender identification and masculinity–femininity ratings for males and females, respectively.

Homosexuality as a specific risk factor for eating disorders in men

The current study examined whether homosexuality is a specific risk factor for disordered eating in men. Men (64 heterosexual and 58 homosexual) completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the Bulimia Test-Revised (BULIT-R), the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), and the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ). Homosexual men had more pathological scores on the BDI, RSE, BULIT-R, EAT-26, and BSQ. Additionally, homosexual men reported greater discomfort with sexual orientation. After controlling for differences in depression, self-esteem, and comfort with sexual orientation, sexual orientation continued to account for significant variance in BULIT-R, EAT-26, and BSQ scores. Future research may benefit from exploring aspects of homosexuality that may contribute specifically to risk for disordered eating in men.

Masculinity, femininity, and transsexualism.

This study examined the relationship between sex role and gender identity in a Polish transsexual population where, unlike in Western countries, male-to-female (MF) transsexualism is much less common than female-to-male (FM) transsexualism. One hundred and three FM (82 primary, 21 secondary) and 29 MF (16 primary, 13 secondary) transsexuals plus 135 control males (CM) and 303 control females (CF) completed a Sex Role Inventory, which measures sex-role identification, that is, the degree to which one self-identifies with masculine and feminine characteristics. Data obtained from primary transsexuals revealed that, on a femininity scale, MF transsexuals scores exceeded not only CM but also CF. On a masculinity scale, MF transsexuals rated themselves significantly lower than CM, but at a level comparable to CF. The comparison of FM transsexuals and controls showed that, on a masculinity scale, transsexuals scored higher than CF but were not different from CM. On the femininity scale, FM transsexuals rated themselves in between the two control groups: lower than CF but slightly higher than CM. The relations of secondary transsexuals' scores to CF and CM scores, on both masculine and feminine scales, were in the same direction as the primary transsexuals' scores. Secondary transsexuals rated themselves very similarly to their primary counterparts (the exception was a much higher score of MF-primary transsexuals than MF-secondary transsexuals on the femininity scale). Our study revealed that transsexualism does not imply a simple inversion of sex-role patterns: transsexuals differ not only from nontranssexual individuals of the same anatomical sex but also from those of the opposite sex. Moreover, MF transsexualism is not a mirror image of FM transsexualism: it constitutes a more extreme condition in the identification with feminine versus masculine personality traits. These differences seem to be universal for different countries and regions. The diagnostic value of our findings is discussed.

Effects of perinatal exposure to PCBs and dioxins on play behavior in Dutch children at school age.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins are known as neurotoxic compounds that may modulate sex steroid hormones. Steroid hormones play a mediating role in brain development and may influence behaviors that show sex differences, such as childhood play behavior. In this study we evaluated the effects of perinatal exposure to environmental levels of PCBs and dioxins on childhood play behavior and whether the effects showed sex differences. As part of the follow-up to the Dutch PCB/dioxin study at school age, we used the Pre-School Activity Inventory (PSAI) to assess play behavior in the Rotterdam cohort (n = 207). The PSAI assesses masculine or feminine play behavior scored on three subscales: masculine, feminine, and composite. Prenatal exposure to PCBs was defined as the sum of PCB 118, 138, 153, and 180 in maternal and cord plasma and breast milk. For breast milk we measured additional PCBs as well as 17 dioxins. Respondents returned 160 questionnaires (age 7.5 years +/- 0.4). Effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, measured in maternal and cord plasma, on the masculine and composite scales were different for boys and girls (p <.05). In boys, higher prenatal PCB levels were related with less masculinized play, assessed by the masculine scale (p(maternal) =.042; p(cord) =.001) and composite scale (p(cord) =.011), whereas in girls higher PCB levels were associated with more masculinized play, assessed by the composite scale (p(PCBmilk) =.028). Higher prenatal dioxin levels were associated with more feminized play in boys as well as girls, assessed by the feminine scale (p =.048). These effects suggest prenatal steroid hormone imbalances caused by prenatal exposure to environmental levels of PCBs, dioxins, and other related organochlorine compounds.

The Relationship Between Masculinity, Femininity, and Criminal Thinking in Male and Female Offenders

The 4 factor scales of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) were correlated with the Femininity and Masculinity scales of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) in 100 adult male (33% Caucasian, 44% African American, 21% Hispanic, 1% other) and 100 adult female (50% Caucasian, 30% African American, 8% Hispanic, 12% other) federal prison inmates. It was hypothesized that the BSRI Masculinity scale would correlate negatively with the PICTS problem avoidance scale and positively with the PICTS self-deception/assertion scale, and that the BSRI Femininity scale would correlate negatively with the PICTS interpersonal hostility scale and positively with PICTS denial of harm scale. In male inmates, as predicted, the BSRI masculinity scale correlated negatively with the PICTS problem avoidance scale and positively with the self-deception/assertion scale, although the latter coefficient fell short of statistical significance. In the case of female inmates the BSRI femininity scale correlated positively with denial of harm but failed to correlate significantly with interpersonal hostility. The implications of these results are discussed.

Gender-Role Personality Traits in Japanese Culture

The etic (universal) aspect of gender-role personality traits was examined in Japanese culture. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974, 1977) was validated for the Japanese culture and modified for this study. An investigation of the personality traits among 1,227 college students using the Japanese BSRI indicated that male students scored significantly higher on the Masculine scale than the female students, whereas they did not differ from each other on the Feminine scale. It was also found that both female and male students scored significantly higher on the Femininity than on the Masculinity scale.

Inventário dos esquemas de gênero do autoconceito (IEGA)

Este trabalho apresenta a construção e validação do Inventário dos Esquemas de Gênero do Autoconceito (IEGA). Este instrumento avalia dois componentes do autoconceito &lt;FONT FACE=Symbol&gt;-&lt;/FONT&gt; os esquemas masculino e feminino. Na etapa de construção foram levantadas e analisadas estatisticamente, características designadas à masculinidade e à feminilidade. Na etapa de validação, estas características passaram a compor as escalas masculina e feminina do IEGA. Em ambas as etapas, as amostras utilizadas foram compostas por estudantes universitários. Para a validade de construto foram realizadas análises fatoriais para ambas as escalas e análises da consistência interna dos fatores. Através do método Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) e rotações oblíquas, as escalas masculina e feminina apresentaram estruturas multidimensionais. Devidamente validado, o IEGA pode ser utilizado para avaliar os esquemas masculino e feminino do autoconceito.

Psychological Needs Associated With MMPI-2 Scales in a Nonclinical Sample

The psychological needs derived from the Adjective Check List (ACL; Gough & Heilbrun, 1983b) that are associated with MMPI-2 scales were studied among 198 nonclinical participants. Both the Depression (D) and Psychasthenia (Pt) scales were negatively correlated with needs for achievement and dominance and positively correlated with needs for abasement and succorance (dependence). The Schizophrenia (Sc) scale was negatively associated with need for affiliation and positively associated with need for abasement. The Social Introversion (Si) scale was associated negatively with needs for achievement, dominance, affiliation, heterosexuality, exhibition, and autonomy and associated positively with needs for succorance, abasement, and deference, reflecting good construct validity for Scale Si. MMPI-2 Masculinity-Femininity (Mf) did not correlate with the ACL Masculinity and Femininity scales, suggesting poor concurrent validity for Mf.

Personality and Sex Role Orientation Among 17–19 Year Old Females in England

A sample of 233 female students between the ages of seventeen and nineteen years completed the short-form Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire together with the Bern Sex Role Inventory. The data indicate that high scores on the scale of masculinity are associated with high extraversion, high psychoticism and low neuroticism, while high scores on the scale of femininity are associated with high neuroticism and low psychoticism but unrelated to extraversion.

Reexamining Masculinity, Femininity,and Gender Identity Scales

This research compares and contrasts three gender identity instruments, the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), and the Sexual Identity Scale (SIS), that have been used in previous investigations of various aspects of consumer behavior. Specifically, it examines the dimensionality and internal reliability of each scale, inter-scale correlations, and the relationship of each scale to biological sex. Results indicate that the gender identity scales consist of several dimensions beyond those typically interpreted as masculinity and femininity. The femininity factors emerging in the three scales tended to be highly correlated, and females scored higher than males on the femininity factors. However, the three masculinity factors were not correlated with one another, and were not as strongly associated with biological sex—females identified with typically masculine traits just as much as males. The implications of these results for using gender identity in consumer research are discussed, and future research opportunities are explored.