Females In Rural Areas Research Articles

Sex differences in formal recommendation of assets for health (social prescribing) in Aragon

BackgroundIn primary health care, social prescribing is an important tool which is gaining popularity. It is being studied significantly, however there is not enough evidence about different related issues. The aim of this study is to analyse the differences by sex in the application of a social prescription protocol in Primary Care.MethodsThis is a cross-sectional study carried out with data from the Electronic Health Record between September 2018 and March 2021. Descriptive, bivariate and multivariate analyses of data from 2,109 records of Social Prescription protocol in primary health care centers located in Aragón in northern Spain (Europe) were performed using Jamovi Statistics software (version 2.3.28). The comparisons by sex were carried out using a Mann-Whitney U or chi-squared test to analyse differences.ResultsThe protocol was used correctly 1,482 times, where it was applied more in females (74.8% female vs. 25.2% male). The median age in females was higher than males (female 72 vs. males 70; p = 0.003). There were significant differences by sex in several aspects to strengthen with the social prescribing, physical, emotional and relational skills. Most females and males regularly attended the recommended asset and there were significant differences in the group that never attended. Mean satisfaction was statistically different, with 4.74 points out of 5 for females and 4.86/5 for males (p = 0.010). It can be observed that older females in rural areas (OR = 34.15), whose social prescription acts on Emotional Skills and Relational and Social Skills (OR = 6.10–8.23), with good prior self-care and greater participant satisfaction (OR = 8.96), have greater chance of improving their health.ConclusionsSome results showed sex differences in the use and outcomes of formal asset recommendation. However, further research is needed to assess the relationship between social prescription, sex and gender and their implications.

Awareness and Practice Regarding Alcohol Consumption among Females in Rural Areas of Nepal

Consuming alcohol is defined as ingesting alcoholic beverages that include ethyl alcohol, such as wine, beer, whiskey, rum, and handmade alcoholic beverages called "Raksi." Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to serious health issues. Thus, this study aimed to assess the awareness regarding alcohol consumption among females in rural areas of Nepal. A cross-sectional and analytical study was designed to assess the level of awareness and practice regarding alcohol consumption. Total 423 females of the 20-50 years age groups, engaged in “Raksi '' preparation sites were selected. The data collection period was from 2021 July to 2022. A face-to-face interview was done with each individual. All questions related to awareness and practice regarding questionnaires were analyzed accordingly in univariate analysis and bi-variate analysis to find out the association between the variables. The result showed that the mean age of the females was 36.08 with a standard deviation of 7.951. and 51.7% were below the mean age of 36. Among 423 females 22.3 % knew AUD, 56.7% were aware of health consequences, and only 13.3% were aware of treatment protocol of health consequences. Females having inappropriate practices of alcohol consumption were 54.2%. There is an association between awareness regarding consumption and religion, marital status, educational status, and occupation with p=0.043, 0.036, 0.046, and 0.033 respectively. Similarly, the inappropriate practice of alcohol consumption has a significant relation with religion, educational status, and occupation with p values of 0.049,0.034, and 0.003 respectively. Even though there is a higher percentage of females were literate, there is a lack of awareness regarding alcohol consumption and inappropriate drinking habits. Further comparative study can be done in this aspect. Simultaneously, awareness and education-related programs can be implemented to address the problem.

Insight to the psychosocial factors of survivors of suicidal hanging.

The incidence of hanging has increased over the last ten years and is the most common method of suicide. Because of its multifactorial causation, the reason behind hanging remains unfolded unless the victims leave a suicidal note. In the present study, the psychodynamic factors of hanging were assessed among the survivors of suicidal hanging. The cross-sectional study was conducted at S.C.B Medical College and Hospital, Cuttack, India, over a period of three years. Eighty-two individuals admitted in medicine ward of this tertiary care hospital to receive treatment for the complications as a sequel of hanging and willing to participate in study were included after obtaining informed consent. The information was recorded in a pre-designed pro forma. Subjects from rural areas (87.8%) and low socio-economic backgrounds (67.1%) attempted suicide more often. Most of the victims were in the age group of 21-30 years, followed by less than 20 years. The most common cause of attempted suicide by hanging was family-related issues, and mainly by immediately available materials like dupattas, saree, lungi, and other fabrics. Females in rural areas and males from urban areas attempted suicide by hanging in significantly higher proportions (P = 0.041). Most people commit suicide at a younger age due to failure to cope with the different stressful situations. The most common reason for attempted suicide by hanging was family-related issues. Early intervention in family disputes in developing countries, especially in younger individuals, may help to curb suicide.

A Review on Initiatives for Promoting Better Menstrual Hygiene Practices and Management in India.

Management of hygiene during menstruation is severely affected by the continued existence of several societal, cultural, and religious restrictions on menstruation and menstruation practices. Since they are frequently unprepared and unaware of their periods, especially in rural regions of the country, girls face a variety of hurdles and problems at home, in school, and at work. We observed from examining the studies that managing menstrual hygiene is affected by a lack of personal sanitation and inadequate, erroneous, or partial understanding of menstruation. Women either possess zero or minimal knowledge about genital infections, which are caused by poor personal hygiene during menstruation. Women in rural areas frequentlylack access to sanitary items and have inadequate understanding of their sorts and applications, or cannot afford the high cost of such products. Females in rural areas must use washable cotton pads because of this, which they must use repeatedly. The requirements and desires of teenage girls and women continue to be disregarded, despite substantial developments in the water and sanitation industries. Menstrual products are disposed of in domestic garbage and public facilities when women are outside, while they are flushed down toilets at home without considering the risk of choking. Because of this, there should be a need to inform and educate individuals about the health risks and environmental problems connected to them. Reduced trash may be achieved by using modern techniques like incineration. Therefore, the importance of using natural or reusable sanitary products should be emphasized.

Menstrual Hygiene Problems and Challenges Faced by Adolescent Females in Rural Areas: A Narrative Review.

Menstruation is a vital sign of reproductive health and development. Menstrual hygiene practices are consequently a significant public health issue. However, menstrual practices are still tainted by taboos and other sociocultural constraints, which adversely affect health since adolescent females in rural areas are unaware of the scientific facts regarding menstrual hygiene practices. The Indian government has recognized the significance of menstrual hygiene and developed and implemented several programs and schemes for menstrual hygiene management (MHM). But due to a lack of, little, or inaccurate knowledge and cultural practices and socio-economic status, adolescent females face many obstacles and suffer from health issues. A comprehensive literature and datasearch was done using key databases such as PubMed and Google Scholarand other sources such as the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the World Health Organization (WHO), and Google to identify the relevant articles and reviewed publications using full-text search. A total of 40 articles out of 1,461 were selected for review after the screening and elimination of repeated articles. The objective of this literature review is to assess the awareness and knowledge of the importance of menstruation, the understanding of safe menstruation practices, the significance of properly disposing of menstrual products, and the knowledge of how to guard against reproductive system infection and its consequences and also to identify the problems and challenges faced by adolescent females during their menstrual hygiene practices or management. The core of many health issues is misinformation, myths, erroneous beliefs, lack of awareness, and incomplete or incorrect knowledge about menstruation. Therefore, it is essential to teach adolescent females about hygienic behavior and safe menstrual practices.

CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTORS IN NORTHEAST INDIA INDIGENOUS POPULATION

Objective: To determine the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in Northeast India Indigenous Population. Design and method: A cross-sectional sample of 615 adults from 5 rural villages of the Churachandpur sub-division was collected. A similar sample size of 592 urban adults (aged 18-70 years) was collected from the Imphal East and Imphal West. Data on behavioural characteristics, height, weight, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure were collected using standardized schedules, instruments and techniques. Results: The cardiovascular risk factors in the present study are alarming. Hypertension accounts for 21 %. It is significantly higher in urban (24.70%) than in rural areas (17.40%). The prevalence of overweight/obesity is about 24% in rural areas and 40% in urban areas according to the WHO international cut-off points (1995). It is further observed that the proportion of overweight individuals is higher if we use the WHO cut-offs recommended for the Asia Pacific region (WHO, 2000). About 73% of males and 71.24% of females in urban areas consume junk food. In both sexes, junk food consumption is higher in urban areas compared to rural areas. About 82% of males and 83% of females in rural areas consume tobacco. In urban areas, about 78% of males and 71% of females consume tobacco. About 28.32% of males and 9.80% of females are physically inactive in urban areas. This shows that males are more physically inactive than females in both settings. Also, in both sexes, rural areas have a higher proportion of physically inactive individuals compared to their urban counterparts. Conclusions: The cardiovascular disease epidemic is a particular cause of concern in India, including the fast pace of increasing incidence, the early age of disease onset in the population, and the high morbidity and mortality rate. Hypertension and unhealthy behaviour are the major cardiovascular risk factors, which pose a major public health challenge to the individual and population in an epidemiological transition. This is also evident in the present study which will predispose the indigenous Northeast India population to cardiovascular risk factors, both in the urban and rural settings.

Does the Disparity Patterning Differ between Diagnosed and Undiagnosed Hypertension among Adults? Evidence from Indonesia.

Healthcare systems in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are not yet designed to tackle the high and increasing burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including hypertension. As a result, a large proportion of people with disease or risk factors are undiagnosed. Policymakers need to understand the disparity better to act. However, previous analyses on the disparity in undiagnosed hypertension, especially from LMICs, are lacking. Our study assessed the geographic and socioeconomic disparity in undiagnosed hypertension and compared it with diagnosed hypertension. We used the Basic Health Survey (Riskesdas) 2018 and performed geospatial and quantitative analyses across 514 districts in Indonesia. Dependent variables included diagnosed and undiagnosed hypertension among adults (18+ years) and by gender. A high prevalence of undiagnosed hypertension at 76.3% was found, with different patterns of disparity observed between diagnosed and undiagnosed hypertension. Diagnosed hypertension was 1.87 times higher in females compared with males, while undiagnosed hypertension rates were similar between genders. Urban areas had up to 22.6% higher rates of diagnosed hypertension, while undiagnosed hypertension was 11.4% more prevalent among females in rural areas. Districts with higher education rates had up to 25% higher diagnosed hypertension rates, while districts with lower education rates had 6% higher rates of undiagnosed hypertension among females. The most developed regions had up to 76% and 40% higher prevalence of both diagnosed and undiagnosed hypertension compared with the least developed regions. The disparity patterning differs between diagnosed and undiagnosed hypertension among adults in Indonesia. This highlights the need for effective measures, including healthcare system reforms to tackle NCDs in LMICs.

Factors Determining the Labour Force Participation in Haryana

This paper uses a parametric logistic regression to identify the main factors associated with the probability of participating in the labour force. The regression has been applied to PLFS 2017-18 unit-level data of Haryana State. The results indicate that belonging to a large family size, being a female, and belonging to a middle level of income earning family are all factors that negatively impact the probability of being in the labour market. However, years in education, being married and belonging to a family with more jobs positively impact the probability of being in the labour market. Based on the empirical results, the paper suggests policy options to overcome the labour market's main challenges. These policies focus on developing a sustainable strategy for increasing the labour force participation rate in Haryana; empowering females in rural areas; improving working conditions, reviewing the early retirement policy; improving education quality and encouraging enrolment in higher education, and adopting balanced development policies among both Eastern and Western regions of Haryana.

Sexual coercion at sexual debut and associated factors among young females in rural areas of Boset District, Eastern Ethiopia: a mixed method study.

Assess the prevalence and associated factors of sexual coercion at sexual debut among young females in rural areas of Boset district, Oromia Region, Eastern Ethiopia. Cross-sectional community based study design was conducted using both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. A sample of 632 young females aged 10-24 years was taken from six rural Kebeles by systematic random sampling for quantitative and data were collected using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS version 23. Principally Binary Logistic regression model was fitted. Moreover, eight focus group discussions targeting different groups were held andanalyzed thematically. The prevalence of sexual coercion at sexual debut was 36.5% (95%CI: 34.6%-38.4%) among sexually active respondents. Married young female (AOR, 0.71; 95%CI: 0.42, 0.81), living away from their parents (AOR, 5.07; 95%CI: 1.07,24.01), age group of 15- 19 years (AOR, 0.19; 95%CI: 0. 06, 0.54), alcohol consumption (AOR, 2.44; 95%CI: 1.17, 5.08) and Khat chewing (AOR, 8.30; 95%CI: 1.89, 36.38) were factors predicting the likelihood of having sexual coercion at sexual debut. Sexual coercion at sexual debut is a major public health problem among young females in the study community. The emerging program interventions need to take this problem into consideration.

Female Employment in Rural Areas in Western China

This paper focuses on the current situation, causes, and solutions to the employment issues of females in rural areas of Western China. The study begins by illustrating the socio-economic context of Western China, and the current state of human resources respectively for both all people and especially women, then analyzing the effect of the internet and the pandemic on employment conditions. This is then followed by discussing four factors that cause underemployment of females including education attainment, personal willingness, social norm, and industrial restructuring. Finally, we give suggestions on policymaking to increase female labour force participation.

Educational Interventions to Promote Cervical Cancer Screening among Rural Populations: A Systematic Review.

The urban–rural gap in cervical cancer screening uptake is a significant public health consideration. Educational interventions are commonly adopted to promote cervical cancer screening among females in rural areas; however, the characteristics and effectiveness of these educational interventions remain unclear. In this review, we aimed to identify the characteristics of educational interventions used in rural populations and to evaluate the effects of these interventions on cervical cancer screening-related outcomes. Seven English databases were searched in January 2022. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental studies were included. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Checklist for Randomized Controlled Trials and the JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies were used for quality appraisal. RevMan 5.4 software was used for the meta-analysis. A narrative synthesis was conducted in instances where a meta-analysis was inappropriate. Three RCTs and seven quasi-experimental studies conducted in six countries were included. A social cognitive theory-based framework, the community setting, group sessions, healthcare professional-led approaches, and culture-tailored materials were implemented in the educational interventions for cervical cancer screening. The educational content mainly included basic information on cervical cancer screening, psychological issues, barriers and strategies to overcome them, and locally available resources. Educational interventions increased the knowledge and uptake of cervical cancer screening in the rural population. However, the studies only evaluated the short-term effects of these educational interventions, with the cervical screening behavior only being assessed in one instance for each participant. Educational interventions promote cervical cancer screening among females in rural areas. Theory-driven, community-involved, group-based, and healthcare professional-led approaches should be prioritized in the application of educational interventions in rural populations. Both the short- and long-term, influences of educational interventions on the cervical cancer screening behavior of females in rural areas need to be recognized.

Tourism and Ethnodevelopment: Female Contribution in Rural Community-Based Agritourism

The ethnodevelopment emphasizes cultural dimension as identity form, the encouragement of local and marginalized groups in decision-making, and the crucial role of the indigenous knowledge and skill to sustain local livelihood. In contrast, females in rural areas have the same potential as men. It is then necessary to empower females with many ethnic backgrounds as farmers. The Women Farmers Group is a forum consisting of women engaged in agricultural activities within various ethnic groups. In addition, females expect to play a role in economic empowerment to achieve financial independence and build their territory. This research uses a qualitative perspective to illustrate Community Based Agritourism, which dominated ethnic lives in two rural areas of the Pesawaran Regency, and the female characteristics among farmers groups to promote the territory by linking social capital from many stakeholders. Agritourism initiates the diversification of agriculture products and supports the revitalization of rural areas. It is also an important instrument to improve the social status of the female. Both local and national levels in agritourism development need to promote female contributions. The assistance of Women in economic empowerment requires solid institutional support. Furthermore, it emphasizes state institutions as the key players in agritourism development.

Dating Adolescents Distribution by Gender and Place of Residence (Rural-Urban Areas): IDHS 2017 Data Analysis in South Kalimantan Province

The majority of adolescents in Indonesia are already dating. However, the distribution of the dating phenomenon among adolescents varies between provinces in Indonesia. South Kalimantan is the province with the smallest percentage of boyfriend/girlfriend ownership in Indonesia. This study aims to determine the distribution of dating adolescents with comparative analysis of gender and place of residence in the form of rural and urban areas in South Kalimantan in 2017. This study uses secondary data as an analysis tool. Secondary data were obtained from the 2017 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS) on the Adolescent Reproductive Health component. The variables used include two aspects, namely the socio-demographic conditions and dating plus dating behavior in adolescents. The data were then processed and analyzed descriptively quantitatively. The results showed that adolescents in the rural had a greater percentage of boyfriend/girlfriend ownership than urban adolescents. Males are more permissive of sexual dating behavior to premarital sex than females. In this case, both males and females in urban areas are more permissive of premarital sex than males and females in rural areas.

Aassessment of Knowledge, Attitude and Acceptance of COVID-19 Vaccine among Pregnant & Lactating Females

Background: The COVID 19 Virus globally has caused tremendous morbidity and mortality among the general population around the world. To assess knowledge, there has been limited number of studies done to know the prevalence of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among pregnant and lactating women. Aims: To assess knowledge, attitude and acceptance of Covid-19 vaccine among pregnant & lactating females in rural area of western U.P. Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study conducted on pregnant & breast- feeding women attending the antenatal & postnatal OPDs in the department of Obstetrics and gynecology & department of Pediatrics at Teer thanker Mahaveer Medical college & Research center. A total 1560 patient responses were taken from age group 18 to 42 years. All were provided with a pre-validated questionnaire consists of multiple choice. These questions evaluate knowledge of COVID-19 vaccine authorization and published materials. The universal acceptance of the COVID-19 vaccine. Three- and five-point Likert scales were used to rate the responses. Results: knowledge regarding COVID-19 vaccination among participants was obtained from government agencies was insignificant given by 16%, somewhat significant by 40% and significant by 44%, from news channel and radio was 20%, 42%and 38%, from social media in 25%, 48% and 27%, from friends and family in 18%, 50% and 32% and through healthcare provider in 14%, 36% and 50% respectively. In response Strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, and strongly agree were seen as responses to desire to take the COVID-19 vaccine seen in 3%, 4%, 12%, 26% and 55%, through obtaining natural immunity COVID-19 vaccine was seen in 18%, 25%, 22%, 18% and 17%, desire to spend money for the COVID-19 vaccine was seen in 4%, 12%, 14%, 35% and 35% and there was tendency to recommend vaccines to people who were already familiar with them 3%, 8%, 12%, 34% and 43% respectively. Conclusion: Corona Virus immunization is reliable and accessible method of controlling the pandemic and as a result reduces it reduces the morbidity and mortality. Pregnant and lactating women need additional knowledge and attitude regarding COVID- 19 vaccination.

Gender and rural-urban differences in hypertension among youth in India: Insights from a large scale survey, 2015-16.

Hypertension is considered one of the most persistent public health issues and the single largest contributor to avoidable morbidity and mortality in India. This study aims to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of hypertension in youths (15-29 years) by gender and rural-urban place of residence. Data from the fourth round of the National Family and Health Survey - 2015-16 (n = 395,207) was utilised for the study. After estimation of the stratified prevalence of hypertension by various characteristics, multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the correlates of hypertension. The results revealed that the prevalence of hypertension in youths at the national level varied from 9.16% (Meghalaya) to 3.34% (Delhi). The stratified analysis suggests pronounced gender differences in the prevalence of hypertension among youth with insignificant rural-urban differences, although the prevalence was higher in urban areas. Overall, the prevalence of hypertension was found higher for male youths living in urban areas (7.82%) and females in rural areas (5.08%). Concurrently, results from regression analysis also suggest higher odds of hypertension for males residing in urban areas for a variety of demographic, socioeconomic, and health-risk factors. Advancing age, having no education, living in the northeast region, being overweight/obese and high blood glucose level was significantly associated with a greater likelihood of hypertension for both the gender and place of residence. Public health awareness regarding blood pressure needs to be tailored differently for both males and females considering the place of residence. The study suggests that more research should focus on blood pressure/hypertension among children, adolescents and youth since they point towards adult blood pressure patterns.

Sexual coercion at first sexual debut and associated factors among young females in rural areas of Boset District, Eastern Ethiopia: A mixed-method study

Objectives: Assess the prevalence and associated factors of sexual coercion at first sexual debut among young females in rural areas of Boset district, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Methods: Cross-sectional community-based study was conducted using qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. A sample of 632 young females aged 10-24 years was taken from six rural Kebeles by systematic random sampling for quantitative and data was collected using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS version 23. Principally Binary Logistic regression model was fitted. Moreover, eight focus group discussions targeting different groups were held and analyzed thematically. Results: Prevalence of sexual coercion at first sexual debut was 36.5% (95%CI: 34.6%-38.4%) among sexually active respondents. Married young female (AOR,0.71;95%CI: 0.42,0.81), living away from their parents (AOR,5.07;95%CI:1.07,24.01), age group of 15-19 (AOR,0.19; 95%CI:0.06,0.54), alcohol consumption (AOR,2.44;95%CI:1.17, 5.08) and Khat chewing (AOR, 8.30;95%CI:1.89, 36.38) were factors predicting the likelihood of having sexual coercion at sexual debut. Conclusion: Sexual coercion at fist sexual debut is a major public health problem among young females in the study community. The emerging program interventions need to take this problem into consideration.

Dementia Epidemiology and Risk Factors in China

Background: Globally and across China, dementia is a major disability and a public and economic health burden. Evidence suggests dementia prevalence in China is inconsistent and has probably been underestimated by previous studies. Methods: We conducted a population-based cross-sectional study from May 2019 to December 2019, which included 20438 participants who were ≥ 65 years old, from 36 communities and 52 villages from 14 selected centers. Dementia epidemiology and risk factors were then investigated and analyzed. Findings: Our data indicated the overall crude dementia prevalence in this population was 9·1%. The overall sex- and age-standardized prevalence was 8·8%. After stratifying by sex, age, education, location, marital status, and social activity, the prevalence was higher in females in rural areas; it not only increased significantly with increasing age, but it decreased with increased education levels. None-married and less socially active populations had a higher dementia prevalence. Not only being female, older age, rural living, lower education levels, and history of stroke were risk factors, but marital status and social activities were also probable risk factors. Interpretation: Our study indicated that dementia prevalence in China was higher in individuals aged ≥ 65 years. These findings will help policy-makers and practitioners improve treatment and management strategies to reduce dementia risk. Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number: 81571057). Declaration of Interest: None to declare Ethical Approval: The study protocol was approved by the ethics committee of Tianjin Huanhu Hospital (2019-40). Written informed consent was obtained from participants or their guardians.

Rurality and Risk of Suicide Attempts and Death by Suicide among People Living in Four English-speaking High-income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Previous research indicates a potential relationship between rurality and suicide, indicating that those living in rural areas may be at increased risk of suicide. This relationship has not been reviewed systematically. This study aims to determine whether those living in rural areas are more likely to complete or attempt suicide. This systematic review and meta-analysis included observational studies based on people living in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Data sources included PubMed, EMBASE, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar from January 2006 to December 2017. Studies must have compared rural and urban suicide or suicide attempts. Nonprimary research articles were excluded. A total of 6,259 studies were identified and 53 were included. Results indicate that males living in rural areas are more likely to complete suicide than their urban counterparts (RR = 1.41, 95% CI, 1.21 to 1.64, I2 = 96%). Females in rural areas are not significantly more likely to complete suicide (RR = 1.16, 95% CI, 0.98 to 1.37, I2 = 79%). Among studies that only reported combined estimates, rural individuals are more likely to complete suicide (RR = 1.22, 95% CI, 1.11 to 1.33, I2 = 98%). There is no association found between rurality and suicide attempts (RR = 0.93, 95% CI, 0.73 to 1.19, I2 = 85%). Those living in rural areas are more likely to complete suicide, with some studies indicating that only rural males are more likely to complete suicide; these findings are relatively consistent across all four countries. Public health initiatives should aim to overcome geographic variation in completed suicide, with a particular focus on rural males.

An Assessment of Gender Inequality: A Case Study of Pakistan

Background: The gender assessment highlights the prevailing gap in multiple dimensions that exist between males and females, and challenges which Pakistan faces related to gender issues. Achieving this objective requires in-depth understanding of economic and non-economic factors because the existing data only provide gender differences in selected dimensions such as, education, health, political and labour force participation. Moreover, gender gap is observable due to lack of access to resources and opportunities, constrains on female’s mobility, lack of education and information.
 Methodology: The study presents a detailed gender assessment to explore gender gap in political participation, health, education and economic activity in Pakistan. The analysis is based on the secondary data drawn from reports published by several governmental, international development agencies, and local non-governmental organizations. The gender disparity between male and female’s living create biasness which leads to social, cultural and economic inequality. Therefore, this assessment enlightens gender roles, relations and control over resources between both genders in order to realize full potential and constrains of economic and human development.
 Results: Findings from gender assessment can be used to formulate various strategies and policies for addressing gender issues.
 Conclusion: Public policies related to government spending on health and education should be targeted on the basis of gender while identify the regions where higher gender disparity exists. Especially government spending on education and health will play significant role in betterment of females in rural areas.

The Development of Global Women's Rights and Improvements in Reproductive Health Intervention Access of Females with Different Socio-Economic Status.

Female’s access to reproductive health intervention has experienced dramatic change with the development of women’s rights across the world. However, the influence of the development of global women’s rights on reproductive health intervention access differs by place of residence and by the socio-economic characteristics of educational attainment and income levels. As a response to it, this study investigates the influence of the development of global women’s rights on contraceptive intervention access of females from different places of residence (rural/urban areas), with different educational attainment and income levels. Using multi-source data from World Health Organization (WHO), Inter-Parliament Union (IPU), International Labor Organization (ILO), and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), empirical results show that the development of women’s rights generally improves female’s contraceptive intervention access around the world, and especially benefits females in rural areas, with a lower educational level, and in the medium or low-income stratum. The development of global women’s rights thus contributes to the social equity of healthcare access for females.