Youth Female Athletes Research Articles

Early sport specialization in the adolescent female athlete

: A growing trend in sports is early sport specialization which involves training in a single sport on a year-round basis. Factors that contribute to an athlete specializing in a sport include: enjoyment of the sport, obtaining a scholarship, professional aspirations, gaining a competitive advantage, lack of enjoyment in other sports, injury risk, lack of time to participate in other sports, and parent/coach pressure. With the growing hyper competitiveness and professionalization of sports and lucrative financial gains that proceed them, more and more young athletes, coaches and parents are looking to gain a competitive edge. Sport specialization may contribute to increased risk of injury and burnout in athletes. Male athletes have garnered most of the attention regarding early sport specialization, particularly in baseball. Female athletes have their own set of risk factors as they tend to specialize earlier in their athletic career and have been shown to accumulate primarily overuse injuries. In addition to contributing to this paper, Dr. James R. Andrews has been one of the leaders in injury prevention and an advocate in cautioning against early sport specialization in all young athletes. The focus of this paper is to highlight the specific risks associated with sport specialization for adolescent female athletes in hopes of developing successful athletes while avoiding injury or burnout along their path. Over the years there has been a trend of increased youth sports participation by female athletes. As female athlete participation continues to increase, we concomitantly have an increase in injury rates. Additionally, the iconic female influences of superstars like Nadia Comaneci and Lindsey Vonn has popularized the notion of sports specialization in young female athletes. Thus, with both the increase in participation as well as the heightened popularity of sport specialization, greater focus needs to be devoted to injury recognition and prevention in youth female athletes. Identifying the at-risk female athlete is prudent for the health and well-being of our youth athletes.

Relationship between Running Spatiotemporal Kinematics and Muscle Performance in Well-Trained Youth Female Athletes. A Cross-Sectional Study.

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to analyse the relationship of neuromuscular performance and spatiotemporal parameters in 18 adolescent distance athletes (age, 15.5 ± 1.1 years). Using the OptoGait system, the power, rhythm, reactive strength index, jump flying time, and jump height of the squat jump, countermovement jump, and eight maximal hoppings test (HT8max) and the contact time (CT), flying time (FT), step frequency, stride angle, and step length of running at different speeds were measured. Maturity offset was determined based on anthropometric variables. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of repeated measurements showed a reduction in CT (p < 0.000) and an increase in step frequency, step length, and stride angle (p < 0.001), as the velocity increased. The HT8max test showed significant correlations with very large effect sizes between neuromuscular performance variables (reactive strength index, power, jump flying time, jump height, and rhythm) and both step frequency and step length. Multiple linear regression found this relationship after adjusting spatiotemporal parameters with neuromuscular performance variables. Some variables of neuromuscular performance, mainly in reactive tests, were the predictors of spatiotemporal parameters (CT, FT, stride angle, and VO). Rhythm and jump flying time in the HT8max test and power in the countermovement jump test are parameters that can predict variables associated with running biomechanics, such as VO, CT, FT, and stride angle.

Postural orientation, what to expect in youth athletes? A cohort study on data from the Malm\xf6 Youth Sport Study

BackgroundStudies investigating postural orientation in uninjured youth athletes are scarce. Understanding how postural orientation during functional performance tests change with age in uninjured athletes has the potential to enhance awareness of changes in performance after injury and to set realistic goals for injured athletes. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore postural orientation during functional tasks at early adolescence, and changes in postural orientation from early to middle adolescence and relate this to sex, type of sport and right leg lean body mass (RLLBM).MethodsIn this cohort study 144 (38% female) youth athletes (mean age 13.5 years, SD 0.3) were included at baseline and 86 of these at follow up 2 years later. Four functional performance tests were visually evaluated for Postural Orientation Errors (POEs) with an ordinal scale, ranging from 0 (good) to 2 (poor), yielding a maximum total POE score of 51, and RLLBM by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry.ResultsImprovements were observed in the total POE score from baseline to follow-up, median difference − 10 and − 7 (p < 0.001) for female and male athletes, respectively. At follow-up, female athletes had lower total POE score (median 18) than males (median 24) (p = 0.01). There were no differences in POE scores between sports type (team, individual, aesthetic) (p = 0.20–0.98) and no relationship between total POE score and RLLBM (rs = 0.09, p = 0.42).ConclusionsPOEs appear to be quite common in young athletic population, but improvements are achieved over time. At mid-adolescence, female athletes seem to have less POEs than males. Neither sport type nor RLLBM seem to influence postural orientation.

PITCHING IN YOUTH SOFTBALL: HOW MUCH ARE PITCHERS THROWING?

Background:Softball is a popular sport among youth female athletes. While multiple youth baseball studies have evaluated the relationship of injury to pitch counts, there is a paucity of literature for youth softball. In contrast to the numerous youth baseball leagues adhering to pitching guidelines, pitch counts are frequently not enforced in youth softball which results in pitchers with exceedingly high volumes.Purpose:The purpose of this study was to perform a quantitative analysis of pitching volume in youth softball players. We hypothesized that the majority of pitches would be thrown by a small proportion of pitchers on each team.Methods:Seventy youth softball teams including 538 pitchers competing in age brackets eight and under (8U) to fourteen and under (14U) between Spring 2017 and Fall 2019. Game dates and pitch counts were collected for each player using an electronic application. Games played on two or more consecutive days were defined as a tournament. The three highest-volume pitchers from each team defined by total season pitches were analyzed for comparison to the average pitcher.Results:538 pitchers on 70 teams were included. The average pitcher threw 813 pitches per year and appeared in 20.0% of games and the average high-volume pitcher threw 2500 pitches per year and appeared in 54.5% of games. The highest-volume pitcher from each team threw 40% of all recorded pitches, the second highest 27.2%, and the third highest 15.2%, totaling 82.4% of all team pitches. Single day pitch counts of >100 and >200 occurred in 17.7%, and 1.1% of same day games with the average pitcher and in 31.2%, and 2.4% of same day games with the average highest-volume pitcher. Tournament pitch counts of >100 and >200 occurred in 51.0% and 13.8% of tournaments with the average pitcher and in 81.4% and 30.8% of tournaments with the average highest-volume pitcher. The average and highest-volume pitcher threw pitches in two or more games on the same day in 37.5% and 48.6% of possible games while pitching two or more consecutive days in 64.0% and 79.6% of possible games, respectively.Conclusion:Softball pitchers throw high volumes of pitches while also pitching multiple days consecutively. A disparity among pitchers on softball teams exists as 82.4% of team pitches are thrown by three pitchers. These high-volume pitchers may be engaging in unsustainable pitching practices that could predispose to injury.Tables:

Comparisons of countermovement jump force profiles in youth athletes

The purposes of this study were to determine whether countermovement jump (CMJ) force profiles differ for jumps in which peak force occurred at the low position of the countermovement (LP) compared to jumps in which peak force did not occur at the low position of the countermovement (NLP), and compare relationships among CMJ and isokinetic metrics between groups. Thirty-nine male and female youth athletes between 9- and 17-year-old participated. Participants completed CMJs and isokinetic knee extensions from 60 to 300°·s−1. Ground reaction forces were collected during CMJs to quantify unweighting, braking, propulsive, and performance metrics. Torque and power were quantified during all isokinetic knee extensions. Forty-one percent of participants had LP force profiles, while 59% of participants had NLP force profiles. The LP group had more efficient unweighting and braking phase metrics than the NLP group, while the NLP group had greater isokinetic torque and power, and greater relationships between CMJ and isokinetic metrics, than the LP group. CMJs from the LP group represent more biomechanically efficient jumps than CMJs from the NLP group. Additionally, the NLP group may be more reliant on concentric force production during the CMJ, while the LP group may have more efficient storage and utilization of elastic energy.

The Relationships Between Sport Specialization, Sleep, and Quality of Life in Female Youth Volleyball Athletes.

Although sport specialization may be associated with stress and burnout among youth athletes, the relationship with quality of life (QOL) remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between sport specialization, sleep, and QOL in female youth athletes. Higher levels of specialization are associated with increased daytime sleepiness and worse QOL. Cross-sectional study. Level 4. Female high school volleyball players completed preseason surveys to determine sport specialization (low, moderate, high), injury history, QOL, sleep duration, and daytime sleepiness. QOL and sleep variables were compared across specialization groups. Multivariable linear regression models were developed to evaluate the associations between sleepiness, QOL, specialization, grade in school, and injury history. Of 1482 participants, 591 (40%), 436 (29%), and 455 (31%) were categorized as low, moderate, and high specialization, respectively. Highly specialized athletes demonstrated worse QOL (median 91.3 [interquartile range 86-96]) than low (92.4 [88-97], P = 0.05) and moderate (93.5 [88-99], P = 0.05) specialization groups and greater daytime sleepiness (11 [7-15]) than low (10 [6-14], P < 0.001) and moderate (10 [6-14], P < 0.001) specialization groups. In the multivariable model, QOL was negatively associated with prior injury occurrence (β = -1.1 ± 0.5, P = 0.02), but not grade in school (β = -0.08 ± 0.2, P = 0.71) or specialization (moderate: β = 0.08 ± 0.5, P = 0.88; high: β = -0.70 ± 0.5, P = 0.18). Daytime sleepiness increased with high specialization (β = 1.12 ± 0.3, P < 0.001) and grade (β = 0.76 ± 0.1, P < 0.001), but not prior injury (β = 0.51 ±0.3, P = 0.10). Highly specialized female volleyball athletes demonstrate decreased QOL, perhaps because of higher rates of prior injury. Specialization is also associated with increased daytime sleepiness. Sport participation patterns and injury may have implications for QOL in youth athletes.

Motivation in Competitive Sport among Female Youth Athletes

The focus of this study was understanding the reasons for starting and adhering to competitive activity among young female athletes. The current study involved 889 girls who practice regularly in a competitive setting. The subjects, ranged in age from 8 - 17 years participated in 10 different individual and team sport disciplines. The young athletes' reasons for participation in sports were measured by a questionnaire. Results of factor analysis for participation motives to start competitive sport revealed five different interpretable factors: IM (intrinsic motivation), EM (extrinsic motivation), TM (team motivation), WM (win motivation), and HM (health motivation). A two-way ANOVA with repeated measures (5 factors × 3 age groups) revealed significant differences between the 5 factors within the young and middle groups. Post-hoc test with Bonferroni adjustments indicated that IM and WM were significantly different then EM and TM. When comparing between individual and team sport disciplines a two-way ANOVA (5 factors × 2 team/individual) revealed that the intrinsic, winning and health motivations were stronger in team sport compared to individual sport. Results of the factor analysis for participation motives to continue competitive sport revealed three motivational factors similarly to the motives regarding starting activity (IM, EM, TM) and another two different factors, CM (competitive motivation) and HM (hobby motivation). Post-hoc test with Bonferroni adjustment indicated on similar profile of the three age groups with dominant effect of IM and TM while some differences can be seen when comparing team and individual sports. The results should be shared with the coaching staff and club administration to improve the motivation of young female athletes to continue in competitive sport and to decrease the dropout rate from sport.

The Efficacy of Heart Rate Variability in Tracking Travel and Training Stress in Youth Female Rowers: A Preliminary Study.

Egan-Shuttler, JD, Edmonds, R, and Ives, SJ. The efficacy of heart rate variability in tracking travel and training stress in youth female rowers: A preliminary study. J Strength Cond Res 34(11): 3293-3300, 2020-Heart rate variability (HRV) is a reliable indicator of cardiac parasympathetic activity and has been used in athletic populations to measure training adaptations. To date, there is limited research showing whether HRV is practical in youth female athletes and rowers during short periods of overload training. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the practicality of HRV in documenting training responses during a period of overload training in youth female rowers. Time-domain (SD of N-N intervals, SDNN; root mean square of successive differences, RMSSD) and nonlinear (SD1) indices of HRV were recorded during baseline training, daily during the 6-day training camp, and 1 week after the camp in 5 athletes from an elite, high-school, rowing team. Training duration and rate of perceived exertion were recorded to document training load. Training load during the camp was 76% above the athlete's normal workload (2,258 ± 459 vs. 1,280 ± 356 arbitrary units (a.u.)). Using progressive statistics, cardiac vagal activity (RMSSD and SD1) was very likely reduced during each day of the camp when compared with baseline training, although returned to baseline within a week of the training camp. Interestingly, SDNN was reduced throughout the training camp and remained reduced up to a week after the training camp (78% likely; effect size = -0.32). These insights add value to HRV's use in youth sport and provides coaches with an easy, cost-effective means to monitor the physiological response to training, allowing fine-tuning of training, potentially enhancing performance.

Bone Mineral Reference Values for Athletes 11 to 20 Years of Age.

Objectives. Training for sport is associated with the development of bone minerals, and the need for reference data based on athletes is often indicated. The purpose of this study was to develop a reference for bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC) specific for youth athletes of both sexes participating in several sports. Methods DEXA (dual energy X-ray absorptiometry) was used for total body measurements of bone minerals in 1385 athletes 11 to 20 years, 1019 males and 366 females. The athletes were training in several sports at Hungarian academies. Reference values for total bone mineral density and bone mineral content, and also BMD excluding the head (total body less head, TBLH) were developed using the LMS chartmaker pro version 2.3. Results. The centile distributions for BMD and BMC of the athletes differed significantly from those of the age- and sex-specific references for the general population. The youth athletes had higher BMD and BMC than those of the reference for the general population. Conclusion. The potential utility of the DEXA reference for male and female youth athletes may assist in monitoring changes in the BMC and BMD associated with normal growth and maturation, and perhaps more importantly, may be useful in monitoring changes specific to different phases of sport-specific training protocols.

Repetitions in reserve vs. maximum effort resistance training programs in youth female athletes.

This study aimed to analyze and compare the effects of two different resistance training programs. Fourteen under-17 youth female basketball players were randomly assigned to repetitions in reserve (RIR, N.=7) or maximum effort (RM, N.=7) resistance training programs. The programs consisted of 3-4 sets of 4 exercises x 7-10 repetitions with 2 min of passive recovery between sets and exercises, twice a week for a period of 8 weeks. The RIR group was instructed to perform the exercises with 3 repetitions remaining (rate of perceived exertion [RPE] =7). The physical assessment included jumping, agility, and sprinting tests. Moreover, the maximum strength (one maximum-repetition [1-RM]) and muscle power output at 60% 1RM were assessed for back-squat and bench-press exercises. The within-group analysis showed improvements in all tests for both groups (RIR=1.3-43.9%; RM=1.3-17.2%). Between-group analyses showed a significant interaction effect (group x time) on 1-RM bench-press (F=8.07, P<0.05, η2<inf>p</inf>=0.40), favoring RIR group. This study reports for the first time that the use of RIR-based RPE resistance training protocol promotes improvements in high-intensity actions (sprinting, jumping, and cutting), muscle power output, and maximum strength, particularly in youth athletes. Considering the advantages of non-failure training, RIR training may be a suitable in-season training strategy. However, more studies are needed to confirm whether the training-induced benefits of this novel training strategy are significantly better as compared to other approaches.

Long-term test-retest evaluation of the King-Devick test in youth soccer athletes

Despite the clinical utility of baseline comparisons during concussion assessments, little evidence exists on long-term test-retest reliability of baseline tests in youth athletes. In addition, sex differences in baseline performance are inconsistent in youth athletes, warranting further research. The purpose was to examine sex differences, prevalence of false-positive scores, and long-term test-retest reliability of the King-Devick (KD) test. Healthy youth athletes (23 males, 28 females) completed the KD test prior to the Spring 2016 and Fall 2017 seasons. Two-way random-effects intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were utilized to determine test-retest reliability. A mixed between-within ANOVA with post-hoc t-tests were used to identify the interaction between sex and season, and frequencies were used to determine abnormal test score prevalence. The KD test demonstrated good test-retest reliability (0.77[95% CI, 0.43–0.89]), with 11.8% of youth athletes having clinically meaningful improvements between Season 1 to Season 2. There was a significant sex*season interaction (F(1,49) = 4.67, p = .04), with significantly greater improvements between seasons in male youth athletes compared to female youth athletes. However, 33–35% of youth athletes displayed abnormal test scores in Season 2 relative to Season 1. The KD test demonstrated good reliability and only a small percentage had clinically meaningful changes, however a high prevalence of false-positive scores were observed in this sample.

SYMPTOM PROFILES AND BALANCE CONTROL AFTER CONCUSSION AMONG FEMALE YOUTH ARTISTIC ATHLETES

Background:Collision and contact sports are often the focus of concussion research; however, concussions also occur in artistic sports, including gymnastics and cheerleading. Few studies have examined how concussion presents in female youth artistic athletes. Specifically, the effects of concussion on symptom profiles and balance performance among these athletes have yet to be investigated.Hypothesis/Purpose:The purpose of our investigation was to compare post-concussion symptom profiles and balance measures among female youth artistic athletes relative to ball sport athletes. We hypothesized that artistic athletes would have similar concussion symptom profiles to ball sport athletes, but that artistic athletes would display better balance due to the demands of their sport.Methods:Female youth athletes ages 6-18 years who sustained a concussion during gymnastics or cheerleading (i.e. “artistic athletes”) or during volleyball or basketball (i.e. “ball sport athletes”) were seen within 3 weeks of injury. We compared performance between the two groups on measures of self-reported symptom frequency using the Health and Behavior Inventory (HBI), headache severity, and balance control using the Balance Error Scoring System (BESS), tandem gait, and Romberg tests. We compared outcome variables between groups using univariable Mann-Whitney U and Fisher’s exact tests. We constructed multivariable regression models to account for potential confounding variables, defined as those that demonstrated a difference between groups of p < 0.2.Results:Twenty-seven artistic athletes and forty-nine ball sport athletes sustained a concussion during the study period of 2015-2017. The artistic athletes were slightly younger, seen later for initial evaluation after injury, had a lower proportion with prior concussion history, and a lower proportion with pre-injury history of migraine compared to ball sport athletes (Table 1). Thus, these four variables were included as covariates in subsequent regression models. After adjusting for the independent effect of these potential confounding variables, we observed that artistic athletes performed the BESS tandem stance foam condition with significantly fewer errors than ball sport athletes (Table 2). Artistic female athletes demonstrated a higher, yet not statistically significant, headache severity than ball sport female athletes.Conclusion:Female artistic athletes had similar symptom profiles to ball sport athletes. Although artistic athletes performed better on BESS tandem stance foam condition, their other measures of balance control were not significantly different from ball sport athletes. This suggests that although their sports may require higher levels of balance, artistic athletes’ performance on post-concussion balance tests may be similar to athletes of other disciplines.Tables:Table 1.Participant characteristics for artistic athlete and ball sport athlete groups. Continuous variables presented as median [IQR], categorical variables presented as n (%).CharacteristicArtistic Athletes(n = 27)Ball sport athletes(n = 49)P valueAge (years)*15.0 [12.8, 15.9]15.3 [14.5, 16.4]0.16Female sex27 (100%)49 (100%)-Injury to evaluation time (days)*13 [8, 16]10 [7, 13]0.05Prior concussion history*6 (22%)27 (55%)0.008LOC at time of injury2 (7%)4 (8%)1.0Pre-injury ADHD diagnosis1 (4%)2 (4%)1.0Pre-injury anxiety diagnosis2 (7%)2 (4%)0.61Pre-injury depression diagnosis1 (4%)0 (0%)0.36Pre-injury history of migraine*5 (19%)17 (35%)0.19SportGymnastics: 6 (22%)Cheerleading: 21 (78%)Volleyball: 20 (41%)Basketball: 29 (59%)- * Variables that demonstrated p < 0.2 were included as covariates in subsequent regression models.Table 2.Multivariable regression model results for the effect of group on clinical outcomes, after adjusting for the independent effect of prior concussion history, migraine history, age, and time from injury to evaluation. Multivariable linear regression Continuous Outcome Variable β coefficient Standard Error 95% Confidence Interval P value BESS Firm Double-0.430.32-1.06, 0.200.18BESS Firm Single-0.350.92-2.18, 1.490.71BESS Firm Tandem-0.320.75-1.81, 1.170.67BESS Foam Double-0.940.81-2.56, 0.690.25BESS Foam Single-1.230.86-2.97, 0.510.16BESS Foam Tandem*-2.431.14-4.71, -0.150.03Headache Severity1.380.72-0.06, 2.820.06HBI Score1.303.80-6.30, 8.880.73HBI Cognitive1.142.40-3.65, 5.920.64HBI Somatic-0.421.54-3.49, 2.650.79 * When adjusted for covariates, artistic athletes demonstrated significantly fewer BESS Foam Tandem stance errors than ball sport athletes.

Youth Female Ice Hockey Players’ Enjoyment and Commitment to Sport

The purpose of this study was to identify sport-specific predictors of youth female athletes’ sport commitment and sport enjoyment. Based on the expectancy-value model, athletic identity and gender stereotypes were hypothesized to predict sport commitment and sport enjoyment in ice hockey, which has a masculine gender association. Participants consisted of 130 (89.2% Caucasian) youth female ice hockey players (Mage = 11.7, SD = 2.6). They completed measures of athletic identity; personal gender beliefs; perceived gender beliefs of parents, teammates, siblings, and the general population; and two outcome measures: sport commitment and sport enjoyment. The prediction model for sport commitment was significant, F(7, 122) = 9.56, p &lt; .001, and accounted for 35.4% of the variance. The prediction model for sport enjoyment was also significant, F(7, 122) = 2.25, p &lt; .01, and accounted for 11.5% of the variance. Overall, youth female ice hockey players held pro-feminine beliefs about competence and values of girls in hockey. Participants’ personal gender beliefs correlated moderately with perceived gender beliefs of their (socializers) parents, teammates, and the general population (r = .54–.56), suggesting youth female ice hockey players’ pro-feminine beliefs might be informed by these social influences. However, two multiple mediation analyses found no support for the hypotheses that personally held stereotypes mediated the link between all four socially based gender stereotypes and enjoyment and commitment.

Influence of Sex and Previous Concussion History on Postconcussive Recovery in Young Athletes.

To determine whether concussed female athletes with a previous history of concussion have longer postconcussive recovery than that of male counterparts. Retrospective cohort study. Outpatient sports medicine clinic in an academic practice. Male and female youth, high school, and collegiate athletes (n = 431; ages = 10-21 years) who sustained a sport-related concussion (SRC). The clinical courses of young athletes treated for concussion by 1 provider at an outpatient sports medicine clinic were retrospectively reviewed. Recovery time was compared after an SRC with relationship to sex and previous concussion history. When comparing male and female athletes with a previous history of concussion, there were no differences found (P = 0.820) in SRC recovery time. Regardless of previous concussion history, males recovered faster from an SRC compared with their female counterparts (P = 0.0002). Without regard to sex, those with no previous history of concussion recovered faster than those with a previous concussion history, although the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.668). Athletes with a previous history of concussion were more likely to require neuropsychology referral than those with no previous concussion history (P = 0.021), and females, without regard to concussion history, were more likely to require neuropsychology referral than males (P = 0.001). A previous concussion history does not appear to significantly influence postconcussive recovery time in young athletes, although it does increase the probability of neuropsychological referral. Without regard to a previous concussion history, young female athletes recover slower than males from concussion and are also more likely to require neuropsychological referral.

Changes in body-related self-conscious emotions over time among youth female athletes

The current study explored change in body-related self-conscious emotions (e.g., shame, guilt, authentic pride, hubristic pride) over three years, and tested body surveillance, age, weight status, years in sport, and competitive status as baseline predictors of change. Adolescent females engaged in organized sport (N = 518 at baseline, Mage = 14.02, SD = 1.38 years) completed a self-report survey once a year for three years (n = 293 and n = 215 in Years 2 and 3, respectively). Based on the unconditional latent growth model, body-related shame and guilt increased over time, and authentic and hubristic pride decreased over time. There was substantial between-person variability in the intercepts for all emotions and slopes for shame, guilt, and hubristic pride. In the conditional parallel process latent growth model, body surveillance predicted shallower change in shame and guilt over time. Female athletes high in body surveillance also reported higher body-related shame and guilt and lower authentic and hubristic pride at baseline. These findings highlight the importance of studying changes in self-conscious emotions over time in sport, and demonstrate that body surveillance may be an important factor to explore in interventions early in development.

Epidemiological Study of Iron Deficiency Anemia among Youth Female Athletes in Kuwait

Epidemiological Study of Iron Deficiency Anemia among Youth Female Athletes in Kuwait

Sex Differences on Vestibular and Ocular Motor Assessment in Youth Athletes.

The Vestibular/Ocular Motor Screening (VOMS) is a newly developed measure that evaluates vestibular and ocular motor symptom provocation after sport-related concussion. The effects of sex on baseline VOMS scores in youth athletes have not been established. To examine sex differences on baseline VOMS assessment among youth athletes. No sex differences were demonstrated between male and female youth athletes on individual VOMS items (P range = .07-.98). Female sex was not associated with increased odds for VOMS scores over clinical-cutoff levels (range: odds ratio = 0.64; 95% confidence interval = 0.35, 1.15; P = .13; odds ratio = 0.91; 95% confidence interval = 0.48, 1.71; P = .77). No sex differences were present on baseline VOMS scores in youth athletes, nor was sex a risk factor for an abnormal VOMS score. These findings highlight the need for continual baseline and postconcussion assessments using multifaceted assessment strategies.

Female athletes: managing risk and maximizing benefit.

The purpose of this review is to provide an updated summary on the unique aspects of caring for female youth and adolescent athletes. Recent research on female athletes has led to a better understanding of injuries and conditions that are more likely to occur in female youth and adolescent athletes, including the frequency and severity of concussions, musculoskeletal injury such as involving the anterior cruciate ligament, and the female athlete triad. Social factors, such as the growing pressure to specialize in a sport particularly at an early age, also put young female athletes at risk for issues such as overuse injuries. Researchers continue to explore the benefits of athletic participation that extend beyond physical fitness. Female participation in youth sports has increased dramatically during the past 50 years. This has led to greater research on how to manage risks and maximize benefits for young female athletes, although there is still much to be learned. Providers should educate patients, parents, and coaches on both the increased risks for female athletes and ways to provide better support and accessibility of youth sports to all children.

Coach and peer normative perceptions in relation to youth athlete effort

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived social norms emanating from two different channels (i.e. coaches and peers) and individual self-reported effort in youth athletes. Female youth athletes (N = 145, Mage = 13.9 years) attending a five-day summer volleyball sport camp self-reported their perceptions of their coach's approval of effort during the camp (coach subjective norm), how many of their peers exerted effort during the camp (peer descriptive norm), and their own effort during the camp. Results from a regression analysis indicated that perceived social norms associated with both channels were positively associated with self-reported effort, accounting for 13% of the variance. These results suggest that both coach and peer normative information may be important external sources of motivation associated with individual effort in youth sport. This highlights the possible importance of including normative information from either source, and suggests that both coaches and peers may be important channels of normative influence. If replicated, the current findings have implications for understanding the social influences associated with athlete effort in youth athletes.

The Influences of Acute and Chronic Sleep Duration on Endurance Performance in Female Youth Athletes

The Influences of Acute and Chronic Sleep Duration on Endurance Performance in Female Youth Athletes