Female Rape Victims Research Articles

Detection of prostate specific antigen and semenogelin in specimens from female rape victims

The presence of semen is generally accepted as evidence in sexual assault cases prosecution. Detection of sperm is confirmation of semen; however, sperm cannot always be detected. Prostate specific antigen (PSA) and semenogelin (Sg) are used as semen biomarkers. We compared the detection rate and persistence of sperm, PSA and Sg over a range of time intervals from the time of assault to specimen collection.The results show that sperm had the longest persistence and highest detection rate. The detection rate of the Sg test was significantly better than that of the PSA test overall, whether the sperm test was negative or positive.In conclusion, the detection of sperm should be the first test executed: if sperm is not detected, the Sg test is more suitable than the PSA test and could be used up to 72 h after assault.

Re-imagining the rape-revenge genre: Ana Kokkinos’ The Book of Revelation

The Book of Revelation focuses on modern dancer Daniel’s (Tom Long) abduction by three masked women. As its biblical title suggests, Daniel experiences a personal apocalypse: he is chained naked to a floor, raped and, on release, embarks on a violent quest to find his attackers. In this article, we discuss the film as the site of two distinct, but interwoven re-imaginings. First, we discuss the film as a re-imagining of the rape-revenge genre through its reversal of gendered norms: its replacement of a female rape victim with a male, and male perpetrators with females. Second, drawing on Sara Ahmed’s interdisciplinary notion of Queer Phenomenology, we examine the implications of this gendered shift in terms of its depiction of the experience of rape. We argue that the film’s focus on the vulnerable heterosexual male body and its privileging of spatial relations presents rape as a trauma of disorientation in which the victim is unable to reassert control, to achieve stability, even after release. Ultimately, we argue that the film can be read as a critique of its own genre and an intervention into ways of understanding the experience of rape.

The Monetary Cost of Sexual Assault to Privately Insured US Women in 2013.

To determine whether privately insured female rape victims were billed for charges associated with a specific rape in the United States. We examined 2013 de-identified patient data from Truven Analytics Health MarketScan database for an assault that occurred by using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, code E960.1. Analysis of insurance providers' payment patterns for 1355 incident events to female victims aged between 16 and 61 years revealed that victims remit, on average, 14% or $948 of the rape cost, whereas insurance providers pay 86% or $5789 of the total cost. Hospital billing procedures for privately insured victims of rape across the United States are not separate from billing procedures for privately insured nonrape patients. This standardized procedure leads hospitals to bill victims directly for services not paid under the victims' insurance policy. Public Health Implications. The Violence Against Women Act (passed in 1994, reauthorized in 2000, 2005, and 2013) must be amended to mandate that all costs incurred because of rape are not passed on to the victim.

Making the invisible visible: (un)meeting male rape victims’ needs in the third sector

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore whether the voluntary sector meets male rape victims’ needs in England, UK. The author’s contribution represents an attempt to piece together some of the voluntary sector’s responses to male rape victims in England, UK and examine whether they meet male rape victims’ needs.Design/methodology/approachThe author draws on data collected from semi-structured interviews and qualitative questionnaires with male rape counsellors, therapists and voluntary agency caseworkers (n=70).FindingsThe findings reveal nuanced themes that have been overlooked in the existing literature of male rape: first, male rape victims are not given a choice of their voluntary agency practitioner (regarding gender) to serve them; second, there is no specific training on male rape in voluntary agencies; third, the impact of limited resources and funding in the voluntary sector means that many male rape victims’ needs are unmet; and finally, there is ageism and discrimination in some voluntary agencies, whereby male rape victims are prioritised in terms of their age.Research limitations/implicationsMethodologically, the author’s sample size was not considerably large (n=70), making it difficult to generalise the findings to all voluntary agency practitioners in a British context.Practical implicationsAt a time of scarce funding and scant resources for the third sector, the impact of limited resources and funding in the voluntary sector could mean that male rape victims may not receive proper care and treatment. Budget cuts in the third sector are problematic, in that voluntary agencies may be unable to get access to robust training programs for male rape or to resources that can help shape and develop the ways in which they serve male rape victims. The needs of male rape victims, therefore, are unlikely to be met at the local, regional and national levels.Social implicationsSome practitioners are misinformed about male rape and do not have the tools to be able to adequately and efficiently handle male rape victims. Not only can their lack of understanding of male rape worsen male rape victims’ trauma through inappropriate ways of handling them, but also the practitioners may implicitly reinforce male rape myths, such as “male rape is solely a homosexual issue” or “men cannot be raped”.Originality/valueWhilst previous contributions have recognised the third sector’s responses to female rape victims, little work has been done to identify their treatment of male rape victims. The author attempts to fill some of this lacuna. In particular, The author draws attention to some of the issues and dilemmas that arise when voluntary agencies provide services for male victims of rape. The author’s concern is that many male rape victims’ needs may be neglected or ignored because of the rise in neoliberalism, as there appears to be a financial meltdown in the voluntary sector.

Offer, minna och utsatthet. Diskurser om alkohol i våldtäckts- och misshandelsmål

The alcohol consumption of female rape victims is often discussed during rape trials. This has been regarded as an emblematic example of victim blaming and the failures of the legal system in relation to rape. From a feminist perspective it can be seen as an expression of the structural subordination of women in society in general. This article investigates the meanings attached to alcohol in written court decisions in Swedish rape trials (2008-2012). Rape trials are contrasted with assault trials, where the complainants are men. Thirty court decisions from each type of trial are compared, with the same number of guilty and not-guilty verdicts. Quantitative analysis reveals that alcohol consumption is mentioned more often in rape trials, where it also appears more relevant to decision-making. The complainants’ consumption is mentioned four times more often than the defendants’ consumption. In assault decisions, the mentioning of alcohol consumption is distributed roughly equally between the parties. The analysis shows how a large proportion of the alcohol references in both rape trials and assault trials can be regarded as largely irrelevant noise. The remaining alcohol references are understood in terms of five interpretative repertoires: 1) the accuracy of memory on part of witnesses; 2) explanations of seemingly irrational behaviors; 3) vulnerability; 4) getting the victim drunk; and 5) moral character. The latter three interpretive repertoires are more common in rape decisions. As a conclusion, part of the preoccupation with rape victims’ alcohol consumption can be attributed to protectionary strategies, and should thus not be regarded as victim-blaming. However, some assessments appear to build on assumptions that information about alcohol consumption is indicative to moral character that is relevant to court decisions.

The Selective Use of Rape-Victim Stereotypes to Protect Culturally Similar Perpetrators

Powerful stereotypes exist about how female rape victims should act. For example, victims are expected to physically resist their attacker and immediately report their assault. In reality, some victims are too shocked to physically resist or too traumatized to immediately go to police. Nevertheless, counterstereotypic-victim behavior can undermine fair prosecution outcomes, especially for acquaintance-rape victims. In the current research, we examined the influence of perceivers’ cultural similarity to the perpetrator, and the stereotypicality of rape-victim behaviour, on victim and perpetrator blame, punishment severity, and guilt likelihood. We varied an acquaintance-rape scenario, to present stereotypical/counterstereotypical rape-victim behaviour, and the cultural similarity/dissimilarity of perpetrators to participants, who were White-Australian women and men, aged between 18 and 74 ( N = 237). In the victim-stereotypic condition, reactions did not vary as a function of perpetrator-cultural similarity. However, in the counterstereotypic-victim condition, culturally similar (compared to culturally dissimilar) perpetrators were considered less guilty and less deserving of punishment. Moderated mediation indicated that the greater leniency shown towards culturally similar perpetrators was explained by increases in victim blame and decreases in perpetrator blame. To decrease bias when prosecuting rape perpetrators, we recommend challenging the selective use of counterstereotypic-victim behaviour to defend culturally similar perpetrators.

Male Rape, Stereotypes, and Unmet Needs: Hindering Recovery, Perpetuating Silence

Abstract This article seeks to explore hegemonic masculinity and its influence on male victims of rape, particularly when seeking support from voluntary services, such as Victim Support, that are designed to deal with both male and female victims of rape and other victims of crime. The article argues that voluntary services do not meet male rape victims' needs when these victims do build up the courage to seek support. The linking thread among the themes presented in this article is the theoretical framework of hegemonic masculinity, which will be the theoretical foundation used to elucidate the conception of male rape and the responses to it. Throughout the critical exploration of these themes, the article questions service provisions that handle male victims of rape. It also argues that voluntary services are inappropriately trained to deal with male rape victims because of stereotypes and misconceptions relating to male rape, which inhibit a complete understanding of this phenomenon. The illustrations ...

Studying the prevalence of physical injuries and demographic characteristics of female victims of sexual assault referred to the forensics in Ahvaz city, 2013-2014

Rape is a term used in legal medicine and criminology (1) and a form of rape (2), which means sexual intercourse with a person (child or adult) through vaginal, oral and anal sex without his/her consent. (1 and 3) Each year, millions of females and children around the world become the victim of rape and sexual abuse. In recent years, researchers have made efforts to investigate the issue of rape from different perspectives and explain it in specific areas (7) that one of these areas is checking physical condition and demographic characteristics. (8) Therefore this study has been done with the aim of evaluating the prevalence of physical injuries and demographic characteristics of female victims of rape, physical injuries referred to the forensics in Ahvaz. In this descriptive-cross sectional study, 64 persons of rape victims referred to examinations of women section in forensics of the city of Ahvaz in the second half of 2013-2014 were selected as the sample of the research. For obtaining information, a two-part questionnaire including sexual assault and demographic characteristics was given to the cases and for recording the physical injuries inflicted upon the victims, some observation was done. Obtained information which was based on the objectives of the research was entered into the computer using software SPSS21 after coding and then descriptive statistics were analyzed. In this case, the majority of victims were single and the least of them had been divorced. Their highest level of education has been high school or diploma. In terms of economic status, most of them were in the medium level and a small population of them was in a good level of economic status. Most female victims had been raped by one man. In most female victims, defloration had been occurred. In general, the results of this study shows that the injury to the hymen (Defloration) has the highest percentage among inflicted injuries that according to the social and cultural conditions of the society as well as individuals’ attitude, this injury can greatly affect one's life.

Prevalence and Characteristics of Sexual Violence, Stalking, and Intimate Partner Violence Victimization—National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011

Prevalence and Characteristics of Sexual Violence, Stalking, and Intimate Partner Violence Victimization—National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011

The (un)receptive experiences of female rape victims who seek healthcare services

To know the structure and functioning of healthcare services from the perspective of women who have suffered rape. A qualitative study conducted with 11 women who experienced rape, monitored in a maternity in the state of Alagoas, Brazil. Data were systematically based on content analysis. It allowed for understanding the path taken by women in search of support from health services, as well as the limitations and capabilities of these services. The assistance received in healthcare services leans towards a revictimization process of women who already carry trauma from the rape. It is necessary to reflect about care practices aimed at sexually victimized women.

Acute stress among adolescents and female rape victims measured by ASC-Kids: A pilot study

Background: Rape is considered a stressful trauma and often with durable consequences. How the aftermath of rape is for young adolescents’ girls considering acute stress is an overlooked field and remains to be studied. Aims: In this study, we wanted to investigate acute stress among adolescent victims of rape and the psychometric properties of the Acute Stress Checklist for Children (ASC-Kids). Methods: A clinical sample (n = 79) of raped girls, 13–17 years old who had turned to a special rape victim unit for treatment, answered the ASC-Kids. ASC-Kids was also given to a group of minor stressed, non-raped adolescents in the same age range (n = 154) together with the University of California at Los Angeles Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index (UCLA PTSD RI), and the Sense of Coherence Scale 13 (SOC-13). Results: The scores from the groups were compared and showed significant differences in mean values on all the diagnostic criteria of acute stress disorder. In the clinical group, 36.7% obtained full ASD criteria. ASC-Kids could discriminate well between groups. Cronbach's alpha was found to be excellent, and the correlation between the UCLA PTSD RI and ASC-Kids found to be good; both ASC-Kids and UCLA PTSD RI had a good and moderate negative correlation with SOC-13. Conclusion: Adolescent female rape victims were shown to have a very high level of acute stress, and the ASC-Kids was found to have sound psychometrics and can be a valuable screening instrument to support clinicians in their assessments of an indication of adolescents after potentially stressful events such as rape.

Factors Associated With Follow-Up Attendance Among Rape Victims Seen in Acute Medical Care

Objective: Rape is associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related comorbidities. Most victims do not obtain treatment for these conditions. Acute care medical settings are well positioned to link patients to services; however, difficulty engaging victims and low attendance at provided follow-up appointments is well documented. Identifying factors associated with follow-up can inform engagement and linkage strategies. Method: Administrative, patient self-report, and provider observational data from Harborview Medical Center were combined for the analysis. Using logistic regression, we examined factors associated with follow-up health service utilization after seeking services for rape in the emergency department. Results: Of the 521 diverse female (n = 476) and male (n = 45) rape victims, 28% attended the recommended medical/counseling follow-up appointment. In the final (adjusted) logistic regression model, having a developmental or other disability (OR = 0.40, 95% CI = 0.21–0.77), having a current mental illness (OR = 0.25, 95% CI = 0.13–0.49), and being assaulted in public (OR = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.28–0.87) were uniquely associated with reduced odds of attending the follow-up. Having a prior mental health condition (OR = 3.02, 95% CI = 1.86–4.91), a completed Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner’s (SANE) examination (OR = 2.97, 95% CI = 1.84–4.81), and social support available to help cope with the assault (OR = 3.54, 95% CI = 1.76–7.11) were associated with an increased odds of attending the follow-up. Conclusions: Findings point to relevant characteristics ascertained at the acute care medical visit for rape that may be used to identify victims less likely to obtain posttraumatic medical and mental health services. Efforts to improve service linkage for these patients is warranted and may require alternative service delivery models that engage rape survivors and support posttraumatic recovery.

Feelings of wantedness and consent during nonconsensual sex: Implications for posttraumatic cognitions.

Social-cognitive models of traumatic stress have urged researchers to investigate the complex changes in victims' systems of belief following trauma. Among victims of rape, posttraumatic cognitions related to self-blame, safety, trust, intimacy, control, power, and esteem are common negative outcomes; yet there is great variability in the degree to which rape victims exhibit these reactions, and this remains unexplained. Two possible factors that may be relevant to the development of these posttraumatic cognitions are the extent to which the nonconsensual sexual act was internally perceived as nonconsensual by the victim and the extent to which it was internally perceived as unwanted by the victim. Although felt consent and perceived wanting are often conflated and rated dichotomously, there is evidence that they are distinct and may be experienced on a continuum. This study sought to examine the relationships among felt consent, wantedness, and posttraumatic cognitions in a sample of 189 undergraduate female victims of rape. Results demonstrated that perceived consent and perceived wantedness had unique and opposite relationships with posttraumatic cognitions: Greater felt consent was a risk factor for characterological and behavioral self-blame and maladaptive self-beliefs, but greater feelings of wanting to have sex constituted a protective factor for characterological self-blame, maladaptive self-beliefs, and maladaptive world-beliefs. A suppression effect was also identified, which provided evidence that perceived consent and wantedness work in tandem in the cognitive processing of rape. Clinical and research implications are discussed, with an emphasis on the importance of understanding and honoring victims' perceptions.

Recruitment and Retention of Vulnerable Populations: Lessons Learned from a Longitudinal Qualitative Study

The main focus of the researcher’s study was to examine the lived experiences of intimate partners of female rape victims within the first six months post rape. Yet, many publications describing longitudinal qualitative studies of sexual assault fail to provide a detailed report on the processes followed, the difficulties experienced, as well as the reasons for such difficulties. To fill theses gaps, in this paper, the researcher describes the strategies applied to recruit and retain the participants for the entire six-month period post rape. The lessons learned during recruitment and data collection are also described. The research question that guided the study was: what are the lived experiences of intimate partners of female rape victims during the six months following the rape? The selection of study participants involved purposeful sampling. After providing their informed consent, nine intimate partners of female rape victims living in Cape Town, South Africa, participated in four separate face-to-face, semi-structured interviews as follows: (a) within 14 days of, (b) a month after, (c) three months after and (d) six months after the rape. Recommendations were made for future researchers to make them aware of the difficulties encountered in accessing, recruiting, and retaining vulnerable populations in longitudinal studies, especially in the field of research into sexual violence.

The emotional male victim: effects of presentation mode on judged credibility.

The emotional victim effect (EVE, i.e., that the emotionality of a victim's demeanor affects perceived credibility) is a robust research finding for female victims of rape but much less explored for other types of victims and crimes. In this article, we investigate the EVE with a male assault complainant. In addition, we vary the presentation mode via which the complainant is shown to the assessors. A sample of law students (N = 81) participated in an experiment where they viewed and assessed credibility of a male complainant who appeared either live or on video. The complainant behaved either in an emotional or a neutral manner. Result showed that the presentation mode but not the EVE affected the assessors' credibility assessments: The complainant was perceived as more truthful when communicating live, as opposed to via video. Practical implications, as well as the generality of the EVE, are discussed.

Identifying risk factors for PTSD in women seeking medical help after rape.

ObjectivesRape has been found to be the trauma most commonly associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) among women. It is therefore important to be able to identify those women at greatest risk of developing PTSD. The aims of the present study were to analyze the PTSD prevalence six months after sexual assaults and identify the major risk factors for developing PTSD.MethodsParticipants were 317 female victims of rape who sought help at the Emergency Clinic for Raped Women at Stockholm South Hospital, Sweden. Baseline assessments of mental health were carried out and followed up after six months.ResultsThirty-nine percent of the women had developed PTSD at the six month assessment, and 47% suffered from moderate or severe depression. The major risk factors for PTSD were having been sexually assaulted by more than one person, suffering from acute stress disorder (ASD) shortly after the assault, having been exposed to several acts during the assault, having been injured, having co-morbid depression, and having a history of more than two earlier traumas. Further, ASD on its own was found to be a poor predictor of PTSD because of the substantial ceiling effect after sexual assaults.ConclusionsDevelopment of PTSD is common in the aftermath of sexual assaults. Increased risk of developing PTSD is caused by a combination of victim vulnerability and the extent of the dramatic nature of the current assault. By identifying those women at greatest risk of developing PTSD appropriate therapeutic resources can be directed.

Relationship Difficulties Postrape: Being a Male Intimate Partner of a Female Rape Victim in Cape Town, South Africa

In a longitudinal phenomenological study, the lived experience of being a male intimate partner (MIP) of a female rape victim in Cape Town, South Africa, is presented. Nine men participated in four face-to-face, semistructured interviews. The authors describe changes in communication and sexual intimacy postrape and how these changes spiralled into a dysfunctional relationship. Participants were interested in interventions for both partners and particularly for education to improve their communication and sexual relationships postrape. Researchers need to reconsider existing policies related to training programs to develop interventions that can address the needs of couples postrape and, ultimately, enhance their recovery.

An Exploration of Rapists' Motivations as Illustrated by Their Crime Scene Actions: Is the Gender of the Victim an Influential Factor?

AbstractAn aim of this paper was to examine if the rapist's motivations of anger and power as inferred from rape crime scene behaviours differentiates between rape victim genders. In addition, it was sought to analyse the resistance strategies employed by rape victims to investigate whether gender influences victim–offender behavioural interactions. A sample of 24 female and 12 male rape victims aged from 13 to 39 years were analysed. The data were extracted from the US National Crime Survey, which contained 12 reported cases of male rape. It was hypothesised that the theme of power would be evident from the rapists' behaviour as illustrated by the crime scene actions and victim–offender interaction. Smallest Space Analysis, a multi‐dimensional scaling technique, was employed to identify the themes present in the perpetration of rape. The crime scene actions illustrated several distinctions relating to the theme of power present in the offender's motives irrespective of the victim's gender. An additional finding was that victim resistance strategies differentiated between male and female rape victims. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Does negative affect mediate the relationship between daily PTSD symptoms and daily alcohol involvement in female rape victims? Evidence from 14 days of interactive voice response assessment.

The negative reinforcement model of addiction posits that individuals may use alcohol to reduce negative affective (NA) distress. The current study investigated the mediating effect of daily NA on the relationship between daily PTSD symptoms and same-day and next-day alcohol involvement (consumption and desire to drink) in a sample of 54 non-treatment-seeking female rape victims who completed 14 days of interactive voice response assessment. The moderating effect of lifetime alcohol use disorder diagnosis (AUD) on daily relationships was also examined. Multilevel models suggested that NA mediated the relationship between PTSD and same-day, but not next-day alcohol involvement. NA was greater on days characterized by more severe PTSD symptoms, and alcohol consumption and desire to drink were greater on days characterized by higher NA. Furthermore, daily PTSD symptoms and NA were more strongly associated with same-day (but not next-day) alcohol consumption and desire to drink for women with an AUD than without. Results suggest that NA plays an important role in female rape victims' daily alcohol use. Differences between women with and without an AUD indicate the need for treatment matching to subtypes of female rape victims.

Lived experiences of male intimate partners of female rape victims in Cape Town, South Africa.

Sexual violence in South Africa is a major public health and social problem. Sexual assault or rape is a traumatic event which disrupts not only the life of the female rape victim, but also that of her male intimate partner (MIP), irrespective of whether he witnessed or was informed of the incident. The study aimed to explore the lived experiences of MIPs of female rape victims and the meaning of these experiences in the six months following the partner's rape. We conducted a longitudinal hermeneutic phenomenological study. Nine purposively sampled adult MIPs were interviewed over a period of six months. The participants were in an intimate relationship with a female rape victim prior to and immediately after the rape; their partners had been treated at a specialised centre for victims of rape and sexual assault. Four interviews were conducted with each of the nine intimate partners of female rape victims: (1) within 14 days of, (2) a month after, (3) three months after, and (4) six months after the rape. Two major themes emerged: being-in-the-world as a secondary victim of rape, and living in multiple worlds, those of their female partners, family, friends, society, employers or colleagues, professionals and the justice system. The participant's familiar world became strange and even threatening, and his relationship with his partner became uncertain. Early supportive intervention for intimate partners of female rape victims is required to prevent on-going emotional trauma and alleviate the effects of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder and suffering at intra- and interpersonal levels.