Female Suicide Rates Research Articles

Realizing the significance of socio-economic triggers for mental health outcomes in India

This paper investigates the impact of socio-economic triggers on mental health outcomes, proxied by male and female suicide rates. For that purpose we estimate a fixed effects panel data model of 15 major Indian states over the years 1992–2009. Our results show that urbanization and crimes against women increase suicide rates, regardless of gender. Literacy and gross enrolment decrease suicide rates for women but have exactly the opposite effect for men while poverty has a general negative effect on both male and female suicide rates. Unemployment is observed to be not affecting the suicide rate. Adequate explanations for these impacts are provided and policy implications drawn.

EPA-1814 – Can we Explain the Gender Gap in Suicidal Behavior?

In Western countries depression and suicide attempts are more prevalent among women, and completed suicides among men; but in China women die more often than men by suicide. How can we interpret these contrasting findings? Prospective studies of population cohorts. The Zurich Study found that suicidal ideation was equally prevalent in women and men but suicide attempts more frequent in women. Suicidality was associated with multiple risk factors: both men and women with a depressive personality and severe punishment in childhood were more at risk. Furthermore, women more often reported a broken home, sexual trauma and a lower education level and men that they grew up in a tense family atmosphere. In another study of 2768 19-year old Swiss army conscripts followed up until age 36, higher external aggression scores were found in the 46 men who died by suicide than in controls. In the Zurich Study women scored lower in external aggression than men. Men generally choose more violent and women softer methods of suicide. Following the detoxification of gas in England and Wales, women's suicides fell sharply. In country areas in China women's free access to pesticides is considered to explain the high female suicide rates. The findings call into question the hypothesis that suicide attempts in women are more of an appeal for help. Restricting the availability of weapons and toxic substances can prevent suicide.

The Gender Ratio of Chinese Suicide Rates: An Explanation in Confucianism

The gender (male to female) ratio of the Chinese suicide rates is different from those found in the rest of the world. None of the other societies with known suicide data has had female suicide rates higher than those for the males. While we investigate the factors that contribute to the relatively high suicide rates for Chinese women, we also need to ask what makes the relatively low suicide rates for Chinese men. In this study we try to examine some social and cultural variables in rural Chinese youths in order to identify the factors that account for the relatively low rate for men and relatively high rate for women. In rural China, 392 suicides (both men and women) aged 14–35 years consecutively sampled from 16 counties of three provinces were studied with 416 community living controls of the same age range and from the same locations. Case–control psychological autopsy method was used for the data collection. It is found that believing in Confucianism and being married are both protecting the rural young men from suicide, while the two same variables are either risk or non-protecting factors for the Chinese rural young women’s suicide. In rural China, social structure and culture may play an even more important role determining a society’s suicide rates as well as the gender ratios. Thus, suicide prevention may need to include culture specific measures.

Informal social capital in childhood and suicide among adolescent and young adult women: A cross-sectional analysis with 30 countries

Using data from the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) Study 2005/2006, and World Health Organization (WHO), this study examined the relationship between girls' informal social capital and female suicide rates in adolescence and young adulthood in 30 European and North American countries. Regression analyses using normal, robust and bias-corrected confidence intervals were used for this purpose. Informal social capital (involvement with friends after school) among 15 year-old girls explained 9% of the total variation in the young female suicide rate. This effect was of approximately the same magnitude as that of the corresponding male suicide rate. Although the findings of this study provide support for the common notion that female suicide can be understood in relation to male suicide, the association we observed between female informal social capital in adolescence and early adult female suicide highlights the need for more female-specific studies on suicide. • Until now there has been little concentrated focus on female suicide. • Informal social capital is important for understanding female suicide. • More female-specific suicide studies are needed to better understand this behaviour.

THE EFFECT OF SEX RATIOS ON SUICIDE

Whereas sex ratios are likely to affect the likelihood of marriage, how sex ratios affect health and survival is underexplored. This study uses suicide as a measure of mental health and examines how suicides are affected by sex ratios. As women tend to marry men older than themselves, shrinking populations will lead to higher sex ratios (i.e., higher proportions of men) in the marriage market. Using data from Japan, I find that high sex ratios, both early-life and current, are correlated with higher male suicide rates, whereas female suicide rates are generally not affected. The results of this study have important implications for public health in countries where imbalanced sex ratios are a concern.

Variation and seasonal patterns of suicide mortality in Finland and Sweden since the 1750s

Suicide mortality varies in both the short and long term. Our study examines suicide mortality in Finland and Sweden from the 1750s until today. The aim of our study is to detect any seasonal peaks in suicide rates and examine their temporal evolution to suggest a mechanism that may explain such peaks. We acquired the study material from the Finnish and Swedish cause of death statistics (257,341 deaths by suicide) and the relevant population gender structure data. We then separately calculated the annual male and female suicide rates per 100,000 inhabitants. We analysed the suicide peaks, calculating factors of proportionality for the available data by dividing the suicide rates in the peak months (May and October) by the annual suicide rates. Suicide rates in Finland and Sweden peak twice a year. Both men and women in both countries most often commit suicide in May. There is another peak in October, with the exception of Finnish men. These suicide peaks coincide with a temperature increase in May and the biggest annual drop in temperature in October. We also observed a monotonic long-term change in the Swedish statistics, but not in the Finnish data. Our hypothesis is that seasonal variation in suicide rates may be caused by abrupt temperature changes twice a year that trigger the activity in brown adipose tissue and deepen depression. While the overall suicide mortality rates varied considerably, the monthly proportions in May did not. This finding suggests a routine factor underlying the spring peak in suicide mortality.

The role of under-employment and unemployment in recent birth cohort effects in Australian suicide

High suicide rates evident in Australian young adults during an epidemic period in the 1990s appear to have been sustained in older age-groups in the subsequent decade. This period also coincides with changes in employment patterns in Australia. This study investigates age, period, and birth cohort effects in Australian suicide over the 20th century, with particular reference to the period subsequent to the 1990s youth suicide epidemic in young males. Period- and cohort-specific trends in suicide were examined for 1907–2010 based on descriptive analysis of age-specific suicide rates and a series of age–period–cohort (APC) models using Poisson regression. Under-employment rates (those employed part-time seeking additional hours of work) and unemployment rates (those currently seeking employment) for the latter part of this time series (1978–2010) were also examined and compared with period- and cohort-specific trends in suicide. A significant increasing birth cohort effect in male suicide rates was evident in birth cohorts born after 1970–74, after adjusting for the effects age and period. An increasing birth cohort effect was also evident in female suicide rates, but was of a lesser magnitude. Increases in male cohort-specific suicide rates were significantly correlated with increases in cohort-specific under-employment and unemployment rates. Birth cohorts that experienced the peak of the suicide epidemic during the 1990s have continued to have higher suicide rates than cohorts born in earlier epochs. This increase coincides with changes to a labour force characterised by greater ‘flexibility’ and ‘casualised’ employment, especially in younger aged cohorts.

Trends in suicidal ideation in England: the National Psychiatric Morbidity Surveys of 2000 and 2007

Recent falls in suicide rates should be accompanied by a decline in the prevalence of suicidal ideation. We used a pseudo-cohort analytic strategy to examine trends in suicidal ideation measured identically in 2000 and 2007, in nationally representative English probability samples of adults aged ≥ 16 years. Suicidal ideation included tiredness of life, death wishes and thoughts of suicide. Logistic regression models were fitted to estimate trends in age-specific prevalence of suicidal ideation in the past year and past week between 2000 and 2007. There were 6799 participants aged 16-71 years in 2000, and 6815 participants aged 16-78 years in 2007. There was little evidence of trends in prevalence of suicidal ideation, with the exception of women aged 44-50 years in 2007, whose prevalence was unusually high. Prevalence of suicidal ideation in the past year followed a W-shaped profile with age, with peaks at the transition to adulthood, in the forties, and in the oldest participants. Despite falling suicide rates, suicidal ideation did not decline overall between 2000 and 2007. This may indicate the success of the National Suicide Prevention Strategy. Women aged 44-50 years in 2007 were, however, particularly prone to suicidal ideation. As they also have the highest age-adjusted prevalence of common mental disorders and the highest female suicide rate, there are clear implications for treatment access, availability and delivery in primary care.

Women and suicide: beyond the gender paradox

Traditionally, suicide research has focused on male mortality, with little attention paid to the female experience of suicide. This means there has been a lack of research examining how female suicide rates and behaviours have changed over time and between countries. Through an exploration of the World Health Organisation Statistical Information System (WHOSIS) data, this paper aims to analyse changes in the trends of female suicide across the period 1950 to 2009 in 106 countries. Observed changes in female suicidal behaviours are discussed in the context of 12 geographical and cultural areas of the world: Africa, Anglo-Saxon countries, the Western Pacific, the Baltic States, Central and Eastern Europe, Eastern Mediterranean countries, Scandinavia, South America, South East Asia, Southern Europe and Western Europe. By seeking understanding as to how suicidal behaviours are gendered within specific cultures and societies and by unpacking the Gender Paradox using Cultural Scripts Theory, this paper explores...

Age and sex specific suicide rates in Sri Lanka from 1995-2011

Background The suicide rate in Sri Lanka decreased from 47.0/100,000 in 1995 to 19.6/100,000 in 2009 Aims To describe the age and sex specific suicide rate in Sri Lanka between 1995 and 2011. Methods Data on suicide was collected from records of the Sri Lanka Police. Population data on age and sex distribution was obtained from World Bank Database. Rates were calculated per 100,000 population. Time series analysis was carried out to identify trends of suicide over time. Results In 2011 the male suicide rate in was 34.8/100,0000 and female rate was 9.24/100,000. The male: female ratio was 3.76: 1. In the 10-19 year age group the female suicide rate was higher. The highest rate in females was in the 20-29 year age group and the highest rates in males were among the 50-59 year and > 60 year age groups. Conclusions The age distribution pattern of suicide has not changed from 1995 to2009. The decline in suicide rate among females is more than among males. Globally suicide rates are known to increase with age, a pattern seen among males in Sri Lanka but not among females. In females the highest rates were in the younger age groups similar to patterns in India and China. Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry Vol 3(2) December 2012 Page 7-11 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/sljpsyc.v3i2.5131

P-1439 - Alcohol consumption and suicide in belarus

Background Suicide is one of the main causes of premature mortality in Belarus, brining considerable losses of human lives. There is strong evidence of a crucial role of alcohol in explanation of high suicide rate and its profound fluctuations over the past decades in this country. The aim of this study was to examine the relation between the overall alcohol consumption and suicide mortality rates in Belarus. Method Trends in alcohol consumption per capita and age-standardized male and female suicide rates from 1980 to 2005 were analyzed employing ARIMA time series analysis. Results Alcohol consumption is significantly associated with both male and female suicide rates. The results suggest that 1 litre increase in overall alcohol consumption would result in a 7.4% increase in the male suicide rates and 3.2% increase in female suicide rates. The estimated effects of alcohol consumption on the age-specific suicide rates for men ranging from 0.024 (15–29 age group) to 0.082 (30–44 and 45–59 age groups). The estimated effects of alcohol consumption on age specific rates for women were positive for age groups 15–29 (0.017), 30–44 (0.047), 45–59 (0.039) and 60–74 (0.017). The estimated alcohol attributable fraction (AAF) for men ranging from 28% (15–29 age group) to 67% (30–44/45–59 age groups) and for women raging from 21% (15–29 age group) to 47% (30–34 age group). Conclusions The outcome of this study provides indirect support for the hypothesis that alcohol played a crucial role in the fluctuation in suicide mortality rate in Belarus during recent decades.

Effectiveness of Australian youth suicide prevention initiatives

After an epidemic rise in Australian young male suicide rates over the 1970s to 1990s, the period following the implementation of the original National Youth Suicide Prevention Strategy (NYSPS) in 1995 saw substantial declines in suicide in young men. To investigate whether areas with locally targeted suicide prevention activity implemented after 1995 experienced lower rates of young adult suicide, compared with areas without such activity. Localities with or without identified suicide prevention activity were compared during the period of the NYSPS implementation (1995-1998) and a period subsequent to implementation (1999-2002) to establish whether annual average suicide rates were lower and declined more quickly in areas with suicide prevention activity over the period 1995-2002. Male suicide rates were lower in areas with targeted suicide prevention activity (and higher levels of funding) compared with areas receiving no activity both during (RR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.80-0.99, P = 0.030) and after (RR = 0.86, 95% CI 0.77-0.96, P = 0.009) implementation, with rates declining faster in areas with targeted activity than in those without (13% v. 10% decline). However, these differences were reduced and were no longer statistically significant following adjustment for sociodemographic variables. There was no difference in female suicide rates between areas with or without targeted suicide prevention activity. There was little discernible impact on suicide rates in areas receiving locally targeted suicide prevention activities in the period following the NYSPS.

Culture of Honor and Violence Against the Self

Cultures of honor facilitate certain forms of interpersonal violence. The authors suggest that these cultures might also promote values and expectations that could heighten suicide risk, such as strict gender-role standards and hypersensitivity to reputational threats, which could lead people living in such cultures to consider death as an option when failure occurs or reputation is threatened sufficiently. Study 1 shows that, controlling for a host of statewide covariates, honor states in the United States have significantly higher male and female suicide rates than do nonhonor states, particularly in nonmetropolitan areas among Whites. Study 2 shows that statewide levels of antidepressant prescriptions (an indicator of mental health resource utilization) are lower in honor states, whereas levels of major depression are higher, and statewide levels of depression are associated with suicide rates only among honor states. Finally, Study 3 shows that individual endorsement of honor ideology is positively associated with depression.

Globalisation and suicide: An empirical investigation in 35 countries over the period 1980–2006

Background Globalisation is mediated through a variety of flows including persons, information and ideas, capital, and goods. The process is increasingly recognised as a potential mediator of changes in attitudes and habits around the globe. Aim This research investigated the relationship between globalisation and suicide rates in 35 countries over the period 1980–2006. Methods The association between a globalisation “index” and suicide rates was tested using a fixed-effects regression model. The model also tested the influence of eleven other socio-economic variables on male and female suicide rates. Results Overall, high levels of the globalisation index were associated with higher male and female suicide rates; however, the significance of this association dropped when assessed alongside other social and economic variables. Conclusions While the nature of these findings should be regarded as exploratory, this paper highlights the need for researchers to consider the influence of world-changing phenomena like globalisation on suicide, which might deeply upset the traditional structure of societies with mixed types of impact.

P03-467 - The effects of beverage type on suicide rates in Russia

ObjectivePrevious research has suggested that the consumption of different types of alcoholic beverage may have a differential effect on suicide rates. The aim of this study was to examine the relation between the consumption of different beverage types and suicide rates in Russia across the later-Soviet and post-Soviet periods.MethodAge-standardised sex- and age-specific suicide rates for the period 1980–2005 and data on beverage-specific alcohol sales were obtained Russian State Statistical Committee (Rosstat). Time-series analytical modelling techniques (ARIMA) were used to examine the relation between the sale of different alcoholic beverages and suicide rates.ResultsVodka consumption as measured by sales was significantly associated with both male and female suicide rates. The consumption of beer and wine were not associated with suicide rates. The estimates of the age specific models for men were positive (except for the 75+ age group) and ranging from 0.069 (60–74 age group) to 0.123 (30–44 age group). The estimates for women were positive for the 15–29 age group (0.08), 30–44 age group (0.096) and 45–59 age group (0.057).ConclusionsThese findings suggest that public health efforts should focus on both reducing overall consumption and changing beverage preference away from distilled spirits in order to reduce suicide rates in Russia.

FC04-01 - Restricted women's rights: is there a link with young women's (15–24) suicide? Comparing two catholic continents

QuestionAre restricted Women's Rights, i.e. limited access to family planning, including abortion, associated with Young Women's (YW)(15–24) suicides in two Catholic formal continents, Catholic Western Europe (CWE) and South American Countries (SAC).MethodWHO female Suicide rates per million (pm) were compared and ratios of YW to Total (All Age Suicides) calculated. To explore possibility that undetermined deaths, categorised as ‘Other-External-Causes of Death’ (OECD), might be a source of under-reported suicides, OECD and suicides are correlated. Each SAC mortality patterns, using chi square test and average CWE rates are compared to determine any differences between the two continents, sharing the same formal religious culture.ResultsTotal CWE suicides at 64pm and OECD 15pm were significantly different from SAC suicides 27pm and OECD 24pm rates.Most SAC YW mortalities were higher than their Total rates, the reverse was true for the majority of CWE.SAC Average YW to Total suicide ratios were 1.82: 1 compared to 0.54:1 in CWE and SAC YW to Total OECD ratios were 1.09: 1 and amongst the CWE 0.43:1. There were significant positive correlations between suicides and OECD rates for both CWE age bands but non-significant negative correlation for SAC, showing a marked disparity between the two continents.SAC YW births rates correlated positively and significantly with their OECD rates.ConclusionsIn the majority of SAC patterns of YW suicide and OECD were significantly different from CWE and SAC YW OECD results might well contain more ‘hidden’ suicides possibly linked to restricted Women's Rights.

Does Microfinance Cause or Reduce Suicides? Policy Recommendations for Reducing Borrower Stress

At a time when suicides by microfinance borrowers in Andhra Pradesh are extensively discussed, this paper makes an initial tentative exploration into the impact of microfinance on suicides. Does MF reduce or increase suicides? Data limitations imply methodological limitations and provisional conclusions. The literature review, starting with Emile Durkheim, of research on suicides brings out the importance of psychological factors, divorce, and unemployment. We investigate time series data on suicides in India and find a just significantly positive correlation with male suicide rates and slightly negative correlations (not significant) with female suicide rates – but no relation between microfinance and total suicides. Cross-sectional data of Indian states indicates a significant positive correlation of total suicides with number of SHGs loans outstanding to Banks, higher than with microfinance loans provided by MFIs, which only shows a weak correlation. Going beyond India, a global country-wise analysis indicates that there is no correlation between microfinance and male or female suicides, yet regression analysis of 31 countries (weakly) indicates that microfinance penetration among the poor is a causal factor for increased suicides. Three related questions are discussed. First, do rapid growth and sustainability aims make MFis forget the human angle? Second, is social pressure necessary to make people repay? Third, if Microfinance increases suicides, is this impact to be differentiated between women and men possibly due to changing roles? Based on these, we tentatively propose policy recommendations.

Socio-economic determinants of suicide: an ecological analysis of 35 countries

A long tradition of research has shown a relationship between suicide rates and socio-economic factors. However, most investigations have neglected to account for country-specific influences. The purpose of this study was to clarify the association between socio-economic variables and gender-specific suicide rates in 35 countries, using analytic techniques able to control for effects embedded within different country contexts. Data relating to male and female age-standardised suicide rates (obtained from the WHO Statistical Information System) were analysed using fixed-effect regression. The possible associations between suicide rates and social variables were tested using data for 35 countries over the period 1980-2006. Findings indicated that higher male and female suicide rates were associated with increased female labour force participation, unemployment, and the proportion of persons over 65years. Reductions in male and female suicide rates were associated with increased health spending per capita. The study also revealed that higher fertility was associated with a reduction in male suicide. Female labour force participation had a stronger effect on male suicide rates. The results of this study suggest that variables related to the labour market and the economy were better explanatory factors of suicide rates than population-level indicators of interpersonal relationships. Although results were generally similar for males and females, males appeared to be more sensitive to changes in the social environment than women.

Testing the hypothesis of the natural suicide rates: Further evidence from OECD data

This paper provides further evidence on the hypothesis of the natural rate of suicide using the time series data for 15 OECD countries over the period 1970–2004. This hypothesis suggests that the suicide rate of a society could never be zero even if both the economic and the social conditions were made ideal from the point of view of suicide (Yang and Lester, 1991). This research relates the suicide rates to harmonized unemployment and divorce rates to test the natural hypothesis statistically. We also address methodological flaws by earlier suicide studies by employing autoregressive-distributed lag (ARDL) approach to cointegration advocated by Pesaran et al. (2001). In majority of regression equations, the constant term was positive and statistically significant, indicating a non-zero natural suicide rate. In particular, we find evidence that at aggregate level, Turkey has the lowest (3.64) and Japan has the highest (13.98) natural rate of suicides. In terms of the male natural suicide rates, the United Kingdom ranks the lowest (4.73) and Belgium ranks the top (15.44). As for the female natural suicide rates, Japan takes the lead (16.76) and Italy has the lowest (5.60). The results are also compared and contrasted to each other with a view to drawing plausible policy conclusions.

Building social capital and improving mental health care to prevent suicide

that, apart from a peak during the Great Depression, there were sharp falls in rates during the two world wars suggesting, somewhat tantalizingly, that the resurgence of a sense of collective solidarity that one might expect when an entire nation is threatened may confer a benefit in reducing suicide rates. The growth in equality of the two sexes may also play an important role in reduced female suicide rates in recent decades. 4 On the downside, however, the rates in young adults have shown little change over time, so that today this age group has a similar risk to that of older people. Gradus et al. describe the association between acute stress reactions, a not so well-described mental disorder, and completed suicide in Denmark. Acute stress disorder is characterized by the experience of somatic and psychological symptoms of anxiety and depression immediately after an extremely stressful