Female Professional Athletes Research Articles

Functional performance of a novel compression top for female throwing athletes

This study forged an interdisciplinary design partnership between an apparel designer, biomechanical kinesiologist, and a professional female athlete to design and test a novel new upper body performance garment for improved fit, mobility, comfort, donning/doffing and throwing performance in female professional athletes. Researchers collaborated to address garment functionality and performance during the multi-phase prototyping design process. The final designed performance top was tested against a control for satisfaction differences with fit, mobility, comfort, donning, and doffing, along with throwing performance utilizing a mixed methods questionnaire and motion capture equipment. Open-ended questions were analyzed with content analysis, while quantitative measures utilized ANOVA and independent t-tests. Results indicated the designed performance top had higher fit satisfaction and more optimal positioning during the overhead throw when compared to the control garment, with no difference in comfort or mobility, and the designed top had lower donning and doffing satisfaction. The designed performance top illustrates the need for further research in increasing satisfaction in donning and doffing with bust/bra satisfaction in performance garments and future research to better understand the psychological sensory cues in posture cueing garments.

Effect of Physical Parameters and Training Load on Patellar Tendon Stiffness in Professional Athletes.

Injuries of the patellar tendon commonly occur as a result of mechanical loading of the tendon during physical activity. Shear wave elastography (SWE) is an established technique for assessing tendon stiffness, and has good interindividual reliability. The aim of this study was to investigate the impacts of physical parameters and different sports on patellar tendon stiffness in professional athletes using SWE. Standardized patellar tendon SWE was performed in a relaxed supine position with a small roll under the knee (20° flexion) in 60 healthy professional athletes (30 female, 30 male). Multiple linear regression was performed for patellar tendon stiffness including gender, age, body mass index (BMI), and type of sport. Patellar tendon stiffness showed no significant difference between female (3.320 m/s) and male (3.416 m/s) professional athletes. Mean age (female: 20.53 years; male: 19.80 years) and BMI (female: 23.24 kg/m2; male: 23.52 kg/m2) were comparable. Female professional athletes with oral contraceptive (OC) intake showed higher patellar tendon stiffness than athletes without OC intake (3.723 versus 3.017; p = 0.053), but not significantly. In professional athletes, there are no significant differences in patellar tendon stiffness according to gender, age, BMI and type of sport (handball, volleyball, soccer, sprint, hammer throw). Oral contraceptives may not have an impact on patellar tendon stiffness in female athletes. Further studies are necessary.

Effect of Anthropometric Parameters on Achilles Tendon Stiffness of Professional Athletes Measured by Shear Wave Elastography.

Shear wave elastography (SWE) is currently used to detect tissue pathologies and, in the setting of preventive medicine, may have the potential to reveal structural changes before they lead to functional impairment. Hence, it would be desirable to determine the sensitivity of SWE and to investigate how Achilles tendon stiffness is affected by anthropometric variables and sport-specific locomotion. To investigate the influence of anthropometric parameters on Achilles tendon stiffness using SWE and examine different types of sports to develop approaches in preventive medicine for professional athletes, standardized SWE of Achilles tendon stiffness was performed in 65 healthy professional athletes (33 female, 32 male) in the longitudinal plane and relaxed tendon position. Descriptive analysis and linear regression were performed. Furthermore, subgroup analysis was performed for different sports (soccer, handball, sprint, volleyball, hammer throw). In the total study population (n = 65), Achilles tendon stiffness was significantly higher in male professional athletes (p < 0.001) than in female professional athletes (10.98 m/s (10.15-11.65) vs. 12.19 m/s (11.25-14.74)). Multiple linear regression for AT stiffness did not reveal a significant impact of age or body mass index (BMI) (p > 0.05). Subgroup analysis for type of sport showed the highest AT stiffness values in sprinters (14.02 m/s (13.50-14.63)). There are significant gender differences in AT stiffness across different types of professional athletes. The highest AT stiffness values were found in sprinters, which needs to be considered when diagnosing tendon pathologies. Future studies are needed to investigate the benefit of pre- and post-season musculoskeletal SWE examinations of professional athletes and a possible benefit of rehabilitation or preventive medicine.

Exploring (Semi) Professionalization in Women’s Team Sport Through a Continuum of Care Lens

Professional team male-dominated sports have been built on masculine values; however, these values are challenged by the increasing number of women athletes entering this workplace. In this research, we explore the suitability and gender appropriateness of existing management processes and practices through three women’s professional and semiprofessional leagues. Drawing on a feminist perspective of continuum of care, players (n = 36) and organizational representatives (n = 28) were interviewed to gain insights into how athletes and organizations contend with their rapidly evolving workplaces. Framed around the values of affirmation, empowerment, and belonging, the continuum of care contrasts players’ everyday experiences of care with how organizations administer care. The research contributes through application of the feminist continuum of care. We present considerations for the management of female professional athletes in ways that are careful and an alternative value system that is affirmative, inclusive, and empowering.

Dynamic knee valgus in anterior cruciate ligament non-contact injury and reinjury in professional female athletes. Determinant or not?

Dynamic Knee Valgus (DKV) is correlated with both, Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) injury and hip and ankle disorders in female athletes and has a more significant prevalence compared with male athletes because of numerous factors. The aim of this study is to determine if the connexion between DKV, landing errors, and non-contact ACL injury and re-injury in high-performance, adult, female team sport athletes can be eliminated by changing the frontal plane movement pattern and the landing errors during the rehabilitation process (RHB), a process which was focussed on dynamic knee stability with multidimensional single-leg jump landing training, on 3D knee balance improvement and multistimulus perturbation challenges and tasks,+ eccentric &amp; concentric exercise, strength &amp; conditioning, aerobic training that lasted from 26 - 44 weeks. Assessing and eliminating-reducing DKV during the RHB is mandatory in lowering the re-rupture rates in female professional athletes after ACL surgery and in preventing opposite knee trauma.

Athletic Image Type Influences Women’s Social Physique Anxiety and Visual Attention

Media images depicting idealized female physiques have been shown to heighten body dissatisfaction and body objectification. A potentially buffering factor in media exposure are depictions of female athletes performing their sports, which are associated with reduced objectification. These findings have not been extended to social physique anxiety (SPA), a heightened concern that one’s body does not meet comparative standards of physicality and beauty. Sixty-nine college-aged women reported levels of SPA following exposure to images of the same female professional athletes performing their sport, or in a sexualized pose. Visual attention to body parts on the images was measured via an eye tracker to explore whether fixations corresponded with the experience of SPA. Performance images lowered feelings of SPA relative to sexual images, and induced a lesser percentage of time visually fixating on the head/face, and more time fixating on arms and legs, relative to sexual images of the athletes. No differences emerged for fixations on the torso across conditions. Exploratory mediation models were also conducted to explore the influence of visual attention on the relationship between image type and SPA. These findings are considered in light of the nature of objectifying images of women and the importance of promoting empowering images to audiences.

The Effect of Ramadan Fasting Combined With Regular Aerobic Exercise on Cortisol Level and Trait-State Anxiety in Female Professional Athletes

Background and Aims Fasting during Ramadan causes changes in the body’s metabolism, but there are contradictory results regarding the effect of fasting on the psychological and physiological status of professional athletes. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of Ramadan fasting combined with regular aerobic exercise on cortisol levels and anxiety in female professional athletes. Methods This applied study was performed with a pre-test-post-test design and a control group. The statistical population included all female professional athletes in Qom in 2019. By available sampling method, 50 people were selected and divided into experimental (n=25) and control (n=25) groups. The experimental group performed aerobic exercises according to the defined intensities and three sessions per week. The control group did not intervene. Data were collected using the State-Trait Anxiety Scale and cortisol was measured by blood sampling using a Tosoh 360-AIA device. Data were analyzed by independent and paired t-test and multivariate analysis of covariance. The significance level was considered 0.05. Ethical considerations were observed in this study. Results The findings showed that Ramadan fasting program combined with regular aerobic exercise had a positive and significant effect on reducing total anxiety and its components, including trait anxiety and state anxiety in the experimental group. There was a significant difference between the mean scores of cortisol levels in the two groups in the post-test. Conclusion The research findings showed that fasting during Ramadan combined with regular aerobic exercise is effective in reducing anxiety and cortisol in athletes. The researcher suggests that in order to achieve more reliable results, the study should be performed on larger populations.

장기간 시합 미참가로 인한 여자탁구 학생선수와 실업선수의 선수 정체성 변화

Purpose: Purpose: This study examined the chages in athletic identity of Korean female student and professional athletes due to long-term non-participation in competitions. The wide spread of COVID-19 made the table tennis athletes impossible to participate in scheduled competitions more than 11 months. This type of forced non-participation in games for a long period of time was very rare case in recent years. Methods: A total of 65 female high school table tennis student athletes and 35 female professional athletes responded to the athletic identity questionnaire. The were requested to recall the time when they were normally train and participate before the COVID-19. The participants responded to each of the athletic identity item twice: 1) normal participation period before COVID-19 and 2) more than 11 months of non-participation due to the pandemic. Paired t-test and repeated two-way ANOVA were performed. Results: The analyses of the data revealed that although the two groups showed lowered levels of athletic identity, long-term non-participation in competitions lowered athletic identity of the professional players more drastically compared to the student counterparts. The interaction effects were found for all of the subscales of athletic identity (self identity, social identity, exclusivity, positive emotion, and negative emotion). Overall, the student athletes who palyed for the national team showed moderate decreases in athletic identity. For the professinal athletes, the patterns of decreases in athletic idnetity before and after the long non-participation were similar across different status in terms of national team nomination. In conclusion, unintended non-participation in competitions for more than 11 months lowered athltetic identity of the professional table tennis players more deeply compared to the student athletes. Conclusion: In order to prevent negative impact on athletic identity, opportunities for participation in various competitions, even in the form of matches without spectators, are necessary for the high performance athletes.

Effect of lumbopelvic control on landing mechanics and lower extremity muscles\u2019 activities in female professional athletes: implications for injury prevention

BackgroundLumbopelvic control (LPC) has recently been associated with function, kinesiology, and load distribution on the limb. However, poor LPC has not been studied as a risk factor for lower limb injury in sports requiring frequent jump landings. The present study investigated the effects of LPC on landing mechanics and lower limb muscle activity in professional athletes engaged in sport requiring frequent landing.MethodsThis study was conducted on 34 professional female athletes aged 18.29 ± 3.29 years with the height and body mass of 173.5 ± 7.23 cm and 66.79 ± 13.37 kg, respectively. The landing error scoring system (LESS) and ImageJ software were used to assess landing mechanics. Wireless electromyography was also used to record the activity of the gluteus medius (GMed), rectus femoris, and semitendinosus. Lumbopelvic control was evaluated using the knee lift abdominal test, bent knee fall-out, active straight leg raising, and the PRONE test using a pressure biofeedback unit. Based on the LPC tests results, the participants were divided into two groups of proper LPC (n = 17) and poor LPC (n = 17).ResultsThere were significant differences between the groups with proper and poor LPC in terms of the LESS test scores (P = 0.0001), lateral trunk flexion (P = 0.0001), knee abduction (P = 0.0001), knee flexion (P = 0.001), trunk flexion (P = 0.01), and GMed muscle activity (P = 0.03). There were no significant differences in the activity of the rectus femoris and semitendinosus muscles, and ankle dorsiflexion (P > 0.05).ConclusionsPoor lumbopelvic control affects the kinematics and activity of the lower limb muscles, and may be a risk factor for lower limb injuries, especially of the knee.

Studying the Changes of Time To Stabilization (TTS) and Center of Pressure Velocity (CoP Velocity) in Athletes with an Unilateral Isolated Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Rupture in a Six-Month Follow-Up.

Objectives: Anterior cruciate ligament rupture has shown vast changes in kinematics and kinetics parameters. The aim of this study is to investigate the balance changes including of the time to stabilization (TTS) and velocity of the Center of Pressure (CoP) displacement in functional activities. Materials and Methods: The present cohort study was conducted on 58 male and female professional athletes. The subjects were divided into two healthy and ACL-deficient knee groups, each with 29 subjects. The time to stabilization (TTS) and velocity of CoP displacement parameters in both anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions were calculated in a forward jumping test on a force platform. The test was performed three times consisted on the end of the 2nd, 4th and 6th months post injury. Results: The results of this study showed that although in the ACL-D group, none of the TTS and CoP velocity parameters showed a significant difference during the six months after the injury (P=0.686 for TTS, P=0.603 for CoP velocity in AP direction and P=0.185 in ML direction), there was a significant difference between the healthy and ACL-D groups. The TTS was different between groups (P=0.494 for 2nd, P=0.008 for 4th and P=0.041 for 6th month post injury). The CoP velocity in AP direction did not show difference between groups (P=0.419 for 2nd, P=0.196 for 4th and P=0.36 for 6th month after injury) but in ML direction there was a significant difference between groups in 4th month post injury (P=0.359 for 2nd, P=0.01 for 4th and P=0.331 for 6th post injury). Conclusion: In a six month period after ACL injury balance parameters change without a constant trend. CoP velocity in ML direction showed more significant and clear changes in comparison within and between groups. Considering all parameters, it seems between 2nd and 4th month improvement was occurred but no improvement was seen between 4th and 6th month. It can be said that most of the changes occur in the first months after the injury. Keywords: ACL deficient knee, Time to Stabilization, Center of Pressure, Balance, Velocity

Desempenho no futebol: estimulação cerebral e neurônios espelho

O objetivo foi comparar os efeitos da associação do treinamento mental, ativação dos neurônios espelho e estimulação cerebral não invasiva sobre o desempenho técnico específico do futebol. 17 atletas da equipe de futebol feminino profissional do Flamengo, disputando o campeonato brasileiro de futebol de 2019, de 19 a 34 anos, foram divididas randomicamente em dois grupos, grupo Neurônios Espelhos (NE) (n=9) e Estimulação Cerebral (EC) (n=8). Foram avaliadas a atividade cerebral, a velocidade de processamento mental, e a habilidade motora em uma tarefa específica. Ambos os grupos mantiveram a rotina de treino prevista pela comissão técnica. Além disto, o NE recebeu um arquivo de vídeo com imagens do desempenho de uma tarefa motora técnica, editado com um áudio do protocolo de treinamento mental, já o EC recebeu arquivo de áudio com o protocolo de estimulação cerebral por batidas binaurais mixado com os comandos para o treinamento mental. As atletas foram orientadas a executarem os arquivos recebidos sempre 15 minutos antes dos treinamentos convencionais durante 7 semanas. Comparações dentro dos grupos mostraram que NE melhorou significativamente o tempo de execução da tarefa (p=0,01). Contudo em todas as outras comparações não foram observadas diferenças estatisticamente significativas tanto dentro quanto entre os grupos (p&gt;0,05). Acredita-se que a forma selecionada para efetivação das intervenções possa ter impactado negativamente para resultados mais significativos. Contudo, o treinamento mental associado a ativação dos neurônios espelhos se mostrou mais eficiente para redução do tempo de execução da tarefa técnica e aumento na precisão ao acertar o alvo pré-determinado.

Bet You Didn’t Know She Could Get Paid For That: Using Sports Betting and the Right of Publicity To Address the Gender Wage Gap in Professional Sports

May 14, 2018 is among the most significant days in modern American sports history. No one earned a gold medal or played a championship game. There was no World Cup or National Series title on the line. Instead, with just a keystroke, the U.S. Supreme Court held the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act (PASPA) unconstitutional, thereby legalizing sports betting across the country. In the two years following the decision, dozens of states have established sports betting operations. For professional sports athletes and their agents, this new era brings with it questions of how state laws regarding the right of publicity will interact with laws governing sports betting operations. Complicating this question is well-established precedent governing fantasy sports and the online platforms that profit off of the name, image, and likeness of professional athletes. Against this backdrop, female professional athletes continue to earn significantly lower salaries than their male counterparts. This Article examines the gender wage gap in professional soccer and basketball, and explains the significance and history of PASPA. It then reviews the case law regarding professional athletes and their right of publicity claims. It concludes by suggesting that some female professional athletes may narrow the gender wage gap by asserting their right of publicity on sports-betting platforms.

Sport fans’ responses on social media to professional athletes’ norm violations

The growth of social media has provided sports fans with unprecedented access to information about celebrity athletes’ personal and professional lives and the means to communicate to them. To date, fan-athlete interactions on social media have often been viewed as positive, with cited benefits of heightened interpersonal relationships and team support. Potential negative consequences of interactions on social media, especially when professional athletes’ personal and professional norm violations are exposed, are not well-understood. Based upon the notion that public shaming practices are often used for the purposes of ensuring that individuals adhere to expected behavioural norms, this study sought to explore the presence and nature of public shaming of professional athletes through social media in response to athletes’ norm violations. A qualitative content analysis of 7700 fans’ comments on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram directed at eleven male and female professional athletes from six different sports and the organisations that employed them were collected. Findings demonstrated fans engage in public shaming of athletes following norm violations, as illustrated through fans’ offers or withdrawals of support, and descriptions of desired physical, psychosocial and career-related consequences for the athletes. Findings are interpreted in light of Braithwaite’s Theory and the influences within and outside of the professional sport environment contributing to public shaming practices are discussed.

The effect of physical activity on the levels of the hormones, serotonin and melatonin in premenstrual syndrome

Objective: To determine the effects of physical activity on blood serum levels of the hormones serotonin and melatonin, which play a role in the appearance of the premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms. Materials and Methods: The study was performed in a total number of 20 professional sports female patients who applied to the present clinic with the present diagnosis of PMS. Serum samples for serotonin and melatonin levels were taken in two terms, before and after the sport - season, and also before and after sport time in each of these terms. Results: Melatonin levels did not display significant change before and after the sport - season, but after physical activity, both in the period before the season and after it, it was found to be significantly increased. Conclusion: Effects of physical activity on blood serum levels of the hormones, serotonin, and melatonin play an important role in PMS symptoms. In the present study, which focused on 20 female professional athletes, it was found that regular exercise is effective in treating PMS symptoms.

Role Ambiguity: Translation to Spanish and Analysis of Scale Structure

The main objective of this study is to examine the structure of the Role Ambiguity Framework and a validation into Spanish of the Role Ambiguity Scale with professional players. We employed a sample of 604 male and female professional athletes, aged between 15 and 38 years. To find the best solution of the questionnaire’s factor structure, a set of different models was tested. Data analysis showed that bifactor-ESEM (exploratory structural equation modeling) solution provided the best degree of fit to the data. Furthermore, reliability and invariance across gender were also demonstrated, and the scale showed good concurrent validity. Results suggest that the structure of the Role Ambiguity is composed with one second-order factor and three first-order factors: scope-behavior, evaluation, and consequences. In addition, the adaptation of this scale to Spanish is a valid and reliable instrument to measure role ambiguity in male and female players.

Bone Mineral Density in Female Professional Athletes Involved in Weight Bearing and Non-Weight Bearing Exercises

The present study was designed to assess the effect of different types of exercises on the BMD values in female professional atheletes. The case control study was conducted on 59 healthy female atheletes aged between 20 and 30 years who were a member of the country’s national teams in the past three years. They were involved in weight-bearing (soccer and golf) and non-weight bearing (swimming and rowing) exercises. The BMD values of the L1–L4 anteroposterior lumbar spine and femoral subregions were recorded using a DXA bone densitometer and compared to that of a group of age and sex-matched non-athletes. Mean BMD values at all the studied sites were highest among the footballers and lowest among the golf players. Except for the spine, a significant difference between the BMD values at all the studied sites. As for spine, a significant difference was only seen in the BMD values of the footballers and that of golf players. There was no significant difference between the BMD values of the controls and those involved in either weight bearing or non-weight bearing exercises. The considerable difference noted in BMD values at different sites in footballers and golf players’ points out the great influence of weight-bearing exercises on the bone structure. The bones’ response to exercises is site-specific. High-impact weight bearing exercises stressing bones in a variety of directions are more effective in improving BMD values. Athletes involved in non-weight bearing exercises should do certain weight-bearing exercises to strengthen their bones.

Effects of dietary intervention in young female athletes with menstrual disorders.

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of three months of dietary intervention on menstrual cycle in young female athletes with amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea.MethodsFrom forty-five female professional athletes with menstrual irregularity that were recruited thirty-one, aged 18.1 ± 2.6 years, completed the study and were analyzed. Hyperprolactinemia, thyroid dysfunction, primary ovarian failure and hyperandrogenism were excluded in the study participants. The subjects started intense training at the age of 11.2 ± 3.5 years and continued during next 6.8 ± 3.3 years. Energy and nutrients intake, total energy expenditure, energy availability and body composition as well as serum concentrations of LH, FSH, 17 – beta estradiol and progesterone were measured at the beginning of the study and after three months of individualized dietary intervention.ResultsFollowing three months of dietary intervention significant increase in energy intake (2354 ± 539 vs. 258 8 ± 557 kcal, P = 0.004) and energy availability (28.3 ± 9.2 vs. 35.8 ± 12.3 kcal/kg FFM/d, P = 0.011) was observed as well as improved energy balance (−288 ± 477 vs. -51 ± 224 kcal/d, P = 0.002). Though no changes in BMI and body composition were noted but significant rise in LH concentrations (3.04 ± 1.63 vs. 4.59 ± 2.53 mIU/ml, P = 0.009) and LH to FSH ratio (0.84 ± 0.56 vs. 0.96 ± 0.52, P = 0.001) was achieved, but no restoration of menstrual cyclicity.ConclusionsThis report provides further support for the role of energy deficiency in menstrual disorders among young female athletes and the benefits of an adequate energy intake and energy availability on hormones concentration. Continuation controlled dietary intervention is needed to assess the extent to which long-term improvement in the nutritional status results in improvements in the hormonal status of female athletes, to an extent that would allow the regulation of the menstrual cyclity.

Gender and Competition: Evidence from Jumping Competitions

We analyze if female athletes differ from male athletes in their competitive behavior, using data from high jump and pole vault competitions. We estimate if female athletes use risky strategies as often as male athletes and whether or nor their returns to risky strategies differ. Returns to risky strategies are identified via an instrumental variable approach where we use other athletes' declarations as instruments for individual risk taking. We find that women use risky strategies less often than men, although their returns are significantly greater than men's. We also find that women's returns to risky strategies do not differ between relatively low and relatively high risk situations, whereas male athletes' returns decrease in the level of risk. Our results show considerable differences between male and female professional athletes which are likely to be a lower bound of overall gender differences in risk-taking behavior.

Effects of Dietary Restriction and Chronic Physical Exercise on Adipose Tissue Proinflammatory Cytokines Expression

Food restriction associated with chronic physical exercise is a common practice among female professional athletes. Some studies have shown that both intense exercise and low energy availability affect the cytokine production profile of the white adipose tissue (WAT), decreasing immune cell infiltration and the expression of genes encoding inflammatory molecules. However, the combined effects of chronic physical exercise and food restriction upon these parameters have never been described. PURPOSE: To determine the effect of exercise training and food restriction on WAT inflammation. METHODS: 24 female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into four groups: sedentary (S), sedentary with restricted food intake (SR), trained (T) and trained with restricted food intake (TR) groups. Trained rats ran on a treadmill twice/day (1h), 5 days/wk for 5 wk (85%VO2max). The food restricted groups consumed 50% of food intake of controls animals. TNF-alpha and IL-1b concentration in WAT were assessed by ELISA. RESULTS: A reduction in relative WAT weight (percentage of total body weight) in TR (4.0 fold; p<0.001) when compared with T was found. Relative WAT weight of T was higher than S (p<0.01). IL-1b concentration was markedly decreased 6-fold (p<0.001) in TR when compared to other groups, while there was a tendency to reduced TNF-alpha concentration (7-fold, p=0.06) in TR when compared to T. CONCLUSION: TNF-alpha directly stimulates lipolysis and IL-1b release by adipocytes in an autocrine/paracrine manner. Our findings show that chronic exercise and food restriction induce, together decrease TNF-alpha and IL-1b in WAT, reducing the inflammatory profile in the tissue.

Anxiety and Performance on the Tour de France and Tour de France Feminin

We examined the predictive relationship between pre-competition state anxiety and subsequent race performance among male and female professional athletes participating in the Tour de France and Tour de France Feminin bicycle races. Our results differed for men and women. Male cyclists reporting high self-confidence and low state anxiety performed better than their competitors reporting high state anxiety and low self-confidence. Female cyclists who reported high self-confidence performed worse than their competitors reporting low self-confidence. Departure of pre-race state anxiety, from a self-reported anxiety level experienced prior to a previous best performance, was predictive of poorer performance independently of each female athlete's absolute level of pre-race anxiety. Our results are partly consistent with a relaxation model of enhanced performance for the men and Hanin's Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning model for the women. Experimental and applied interventions for managing anxiety with top athletes in cycling should consider gender differences, self-confidence, and the anxiety-performance history of each athlete.