Female Non-athletes Research Articles

Comparison of Mental Health Components among Athlete and Non-athlete Adolescents

Background: Adolescence is a period of rapid biological and behavioral changes that may expand the risk of mental health issues. Objective: This study aimed to compare the mental health of male and female athletes and non-athletes among a high school student groups. Methodology: On this base 100 students (50 athletes and 50 non-athletes, M age = 16 (SD = ±1)) were selected through multi stage random sampling and divided equally into four groups (female athlete / non-athlete, male athlete / non-athlete). General Health Questionnaire designed by Goldberg and Hiller (1979) was used for data collections. Results: The analysis of one-way ANOVA displayed significant differences between the mean scores in mental health among the groups in terms of mental health, F (3, 96) =39, P = .01) with less prevalence of these symptoms among athletes comparing to non-athletes. Conclusion: Increasing opportunities for students to take part in sport competitions can protect them against poor psychological well-being. Keywords: Mental Health; Depression; Anxiety; Social dysfunction; Somatic

Sexual Health of Polish Athletes with Disabilities.

The purpose of this study was to determine sexual functioning of Polish athletes with disabilities (including paralympians). The study encompassed 218 people with physical disabilities, aged between 18 and 45 (149 men and 69 women). The entire research population was divided into three groups: Polish paralympians (n = 45), athletes with disabilities (n = 126) and non-athletes with disabilities (n = 47). The quality of sexual life of Polish paralympians was measured by using the Polish version of Female Sexual Function Index and International Index of Erectile Function. Clinically significant erectile dysfunctions were most often diagnosed in non-athletes (83.33%) with 50% result of severe erectile dysfunctions, followed by athletes and paralympians with comparable results of 56.98% and 54.17% respectively (p = 0.00388). Statistically significant clinical sexual dysfunctions concerned lubrication, orgasm as well as pain domains, and prevailed among female non-athletes (68.42%, 68.42% and 57.89%). Practising sports at the highest level has a favourable effect on the sexuality of men and women with physical disabilities. Men with physical disabilities manifest more sexual disorders than women, an aspect which should be considered by health-care professionals working with people with disabilities.

Eating disorders and their putative risk factors among female German professional athletes.

This study examines putative non-sport-specific and sport-specific risk factors for eating disorders (ED) among groups of professional female athletes versus non-athletes. In detail, societal pressure to be thin, its internalisation, body dissatisfaction, sports pressure and early specialisation were investigated. The cross-sectional study included 46 aesthetic and 62 ball game sports athletes, and 108 age-matched non-athletes. Study methods comprised a clinical interview to detect ED and questionnaires. More athletes from aesthetic (17%) than from ball game sports (3%) and non-athletes (2%) suffered from ED. Aesthetic sports athletes did not differ from non-athletes in non-sport-specific factors but obtained higher levels than ball game sports athletes in sport-specific variables (p < .01). All factors together accounted for 57.3% of variation in disordered eating, with sports pressure and body dissatisfaction as significant predictors. The results confirm ED risk for German aesthetic athletes and indicate the importance of sports pressure and body dissatisfaction in explaining athletes' vulnerability.

Comparison of disordered eating symptoms and emotion regulation difficulties between female college athletes and non-athletes

The purpose of the study was to compare the prevalence of disordered eating between female college athletes and non-athletes and explore emotion regulation as a potential mediator of the link between participation in athletics and disordered eating symptoms. Data for this cross-sectional study came from 527 college students in a mid-western state of the USA in fall of 2013 (376 non-athletes and 151 athletes). Disordered eating symptoms and emotion regulation were assessed utilizing the Eating Attitudes Test and the Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale in a survey-based format. The prevalence of disordered eating was higher in non-athletes (16.5%, vs. 6.6%; X2=62.8; p<.05). Non-athletes reported more signs and symptoms of disordered eating than athletes (p<.01). A linear regression approach indicated a statistically significant indirect effect (0.63, CI95=0.18, 1.20) of athletic-status on disordered eating via emotion regulation; however, this effect did not reach practical significance. Our findings show that female athletes in our sample were somewhat protected from disordered eating compared to non-athletes, but the mechanism of this relationship is unclear. A further in-depth examination of other factors, such as self-esteem and body satisfaction, that may have contributed to this finding is warranted utilizing a large sample of female college students and athletes representing a variety of sports.

Anemia in Female Collegiate Athletes: Association with Hematological Variables, Physical Activity and Nutrition

Aims: The current study aims to clarify the prevalence of anemia in collegiate athletes in relation to various hematological variables, physical activity and nutrient intake. Study Design: A cross sectional, retrospective study. Place and Duration of Study: This study was done at two universities in Nara, Japan, between April and September, 2013. Methodology: Fifty-eight female athletes and 65 female non-athletes were enrolled. Hematological variables, physical activities based on the definition of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, and nutrients intake using one week’s dietary records were measured. Results: The prevalence of anemia (<12 g/dl of hemoglobin) and hypoferritinemia (<12 ng/ml of ferritin) was comparable between athlete and non-athlete groups. Reticulocytes percentages or haptoglobin levels were statistically higher or lower respectively, in the athlete group. There was no Original Research Article Yasui et al.; BJMMR, 7(10): 801-808, 2015; Article no.BJMMR.2015.391 802 statistical difference in the intake of micronutrients related to erythropoiesis between the two groups. Multiple regression analysis revealed that hemoglobin levels were significantly associated with an irregular menstruation status in both groups, and were associated with the physical activity only in the athlete group. Conclusion: Although the prevalence of anemia in female collegiate athletes is identical to that of non-athletes, they may be at risk for anemia when their strength of physical activity will increase. Since the signs of hemolysis are more common in the athlete group, a measure of minimizing hemolysis such as the introduction of a pad on the sole of the foot may be considered to prevent the occurrence of overt anemia.

Understanding college females’ intrinsic motives for physical activity: A qualitative comparison between athletes and non-athletes

The purpose of the current research was to use a qualitative-methodological approach to understand attraction to physical activity in a sample of collegiate females. Attraction to physical activity, or motivation, can be grounded in the self-determination theory (SDT). Based on these results, the secondary purpose was to examine the similarities and differences between collegiate female athletes and non-athletes regarding attraction to physical activity. Participants included eight female athletes and eight female non-athletes. The interviews revealed two overarching themes: attraction and aversion to physical activity, each with subthemes. Understanding motives to engage in physical activity can help program planners create tailored interventions to improve overall exercise adherence. Clinical and collegiate relevance and limitations are discussed as are future research and program implementation suggestions.

Microaggressions and Female Athletes

Using a combination of scholarly literature and media reports, this paper classifies instances of subtle bias, or microaggressions, toward female athletes in the United States. We identify three common microaggression themes against these athletes based on Sue’s (2010) taxonomy: assumption of inferiority, objectification, and restrictive gender roles. We apply each of these themes to explore the ways in which female athletes in the U.S. experience pervasive and subtle gender-based biases. Women are assumed to be inferior athletes and therefore receive media coverage that is dismissive of their abilities, if they receive coverage at all. The media also focus primarily on the appearance of female athletes regardless of their athletic successes, and are quick to recoil at women who do not fit into the traditional feminine mold. We examine how these microaggressions are associated with deleterious biological, cognitive, and behavioral consequences among athletes. We also explore the effect of these microaggressions on the self-image and physical fitness of female non-athletes. Finally, potential avenues for future research are discussed.

Body Composition and Muscle Strength Predictors of Jumping Performance

Studies of the role of various anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical variables in performance of rapid movements have generally revealed inconsistent findings. Within this study, we tested the hypotheses that (a) both body composition and leg extensor strength variables would reveal significant relationship with jumping performance, whereas (b) the same relationships would be stronger in physically active nonathletes than in the elite athletes proficient in vertical jumping. Top-level female volleyball players (VP; N = 35) and physically active female nonathletes (PA; N = 21) were tested on maximum vertical jumps performed with and without arm swing, as well as on body composition (percent fat and muscle) and leg press strength (maximum force and the rate of force development). The results revealed significant relationships between the jumping performance and body composition variables that appeared to be higher in PA (r = 0.65-0.76; all p < 0.01) than in VP (r = 0.37-0.42; all p ≤ 0.05). The relationships between the jumping performance and the leg strength variables were mainly significant (r = 0.23-0.68) and similar in 2 groups. We conclude that not only the leg extensor strength but also the body composition variables could be valid predictors of jumping performance and, possibly, other rapid movements. Moreover, the body composition variables that have been mainly neglected in the literature could be particularly strong predictors of performance of jumping in nonathletes, as compared with relatively homogeneous populations of elite athletes.

The Influence of Athletic Status on the Passive Properties of the Muscle-Tendon Unit and Traditional Performance Measures in Division I Female Soccer Players and Nonathlete Controls

The purpose of this study was to determine if passive muscle-tendon properties of the posterior muscles of the hip and thigh and lower-body muscle power could discriminate between athletic status in division I female soccer athletes and nonathlete controls. Ten athletes (mean ± SE, age = 18.70 ± 0.34 years; mass = 64.61 ± 2.16 kg; height = 165.99 ± 1.46 cm; thigh muscle cross-sectional area = 94.08 ± 2.58 cm) and 11 nonathletes (mean ± SE, age = 19.64 ± 0.51 years; mass = 62.81 ± 2.60 kg; height = 162.44 ± 2.20 cm; thigh muscle cross-sectional area = 86.33 ± 2.81 cm) performed 2 instrumented straight-leg raise (iSLR) assessments using an isokinetic dynamometer programmed in passive mode to move the foot toward the head at 5°·s. During each iSLR, passive stiffness was calculated from the slopes of the initial (phase 1) and final (phase 2) portions of the angle-torque curve, and maximum range of motion (ROM) was determined as the point of discomfort but not pain, as indicated by the participant. Lower-body power characteristics were assessed through a countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) test. The results indicated that phase 1 and 2 slopes, CMJ height, and peak power (Pmax) were significantly higher (p = 0.004-0.036) for the athletes compared with the nonathletes; however, maximum ROM was not different (p = 0.601) between groups. Significant relationships were also observed between phase 1 and 2 slopes, and CMJ height and Pmax (r = 0.483-0.827; p ≤ 0.001-0.027). These findings suggest that in addition to traditional power characteristics, passive stiffness may also be a sensitive and effective measure for discriminating athletes from nonathletes. Coaches and practitioners may use these findings when designing training programs aimed at increasing musculotendinous stiffness of the posterior hip and thigh muscles and to help identify athletes with high overall athletic potential.

Female athlete's heart: Systolic and diastolic function related to circulatory dimensions.

There are relatively few studies on female athletes examining cardiac size and function and how these measures relate to maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). When determining sports eligibility, it is important to know what physiological adaptations and characteristics may be expected in female athletes, taking body and cardiac size into account. The purposes of this study were (a) to compare right and left heart dimensions and function in female endurance athletes (ATH) and in non-athletic female controls of similar age (CON); and (b) to explore how these measures related to VO2max. Forty-six ATH and 48 CON underwent a maximal bicycle exercise test and an echocardiographic examination at rest, including standard and color tissue Doppler investigation. All heart dimensions indexed for body size were larger in ATH (all P < 0.01). The diastolic mitral E/A ratio was 27% higher in ATH (P < 0.001) while systolic left and right atrio-ventricular longitudinal displacement was 7% (P = 0.002) and 15% (P < 0.001) larger in ATH, respectively. Half (50.3%) of the variability in VO2max could be explained by left ventricular end-diastolic volume. Our results could be useful in evaluating female endurance athletes with suspected cardiac disease and contribute to understanding differences between female athletes and non-athletes.

Body Esteem and Self-Objectification Among Collegiate Female Athletes

The purpose of our study was to use select constructs from objectification theory to investigate how society’s sexual objectification of female athletes is related to differences in body esteem and self-objectification among collegiate female athletes and non-athletes. Using a cross-sectional survey, we sampled three groups at a Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association university: 322 non-athletes, 58 athletes participating in sports that are considered more objectified, and 27 athletes participating in sports that are considered less objectified. Participants completed survey measures assessing body esteem (sexual attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition), body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, and body shame. As predicted, all athletes experienced better body esteem than non-athletes. Surprisingly, both more and less objectified athletes also reported lower rates of body surveillance than non-athletes. Other findings varied by grouping. Overall, study findings suggested that athletes in more objectified sports experience greater thin-ideal internalization, thereby enhancing body shame without increasing body surveillance or body image concerns. Researchers and interventionists should put more focus on sexual- and self-objectification of collegiate female athletes participating in the more objectified sports because their psychological and mental health risks appear to be associated with objectification and not necessarily poor body image.

Comparison and correlation of menstrual dysfunctions and regional fat distribution in female student athletes and non-athletes

Background: In spite of the presence of menstrual dysfunctions in female student athletes, few studies have been conducted to analyse the reasons and athletic factors affecting them. Regional distribution of fat is one of the important factors that plays a role in causing menstrual disorders, and since menstrual cycle disorders can lead to many problems, the present study was aimed to compare and analyse the menstrual dysfunctions and regional patterns of fat distribution in female student athletes and non-athletes. Methods: The present study was descriptive analytical which was carried out on 206 female student athletes and non-athletes studying in Shahid Madani University of Azarbaijan selected through convenience sampling in 2013. Subcutaneous fat was measured using calipers and a questionnaire was given to subjects in order to collect their personal and their menstrual cycles’ information. The collected data were analysed by SPSS (version 16) statistical software. Results: The findings of the study revealed a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes in terms of the incidence of menstrual dysfunctions of amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea, menorrhagia, hypomenorhea and hypermenorrhea (p<0.05). Moreover, there was a negative relationship between thigh fat and amenorrhea (p=0.024), suprailiac and menorrhagia (p=0.015), chest and hypomenorhea (p=0.033), and waist circumference and hypermenorhea (p=0.011) in athletes. Conclusion: Overall, the findings of this study showed that prevalence of menstrual disorders was higher in athletes than non-athletes and low distribution of fat in the lower region of athletes’ body may be disturbed during menstrual periods (amenorrhea) and low distribution of fat in the abdominal and upper parts of body may lead to irregular uterine bleeding (menorrhagia, hypomenorhea and hypermenorhea).

Comparison of Energy Expenditure during Walking between Female Athletes and Non-Athletes

This study aimed to determine, if there is a difference in energy expenditure during walking among athletes and non-athletes at two different speeds of walking. Ninety five healthy female students (47 athletes and 48 non-athletes) with a mean age of 22.4 (±1.6) years purposively participated in this study. Medical and sport participation history of the subjects was acquired through a questionnaire. Two experimental tests including anthropometric measurements, VO2max, and walking tests on treadmill at speeds of 3.00 and 3.5 mph were conducted. Results showed no difference in weight, height, body mass index, and leg length between both groups. The non-athletes expended a greater amount of energy than athletes (3.78±.1 and 2.95±.6 kcal.min-1, respectively) at both speeds of 3.00mph and 3.5mph (4.89±1 and 3.94±.7 kcal.min-1). Based on energy requirements for walking at similar weights and speeds by ACSM’s guideline, the female athletes walked at a slow, moderate and brisk pace. Most of the female non-athletes walked at a moderate, brisk and very brisk pace. This study revealed that regular exercise could improve walking efficiency, and the energy expenditure of walking would play an important role in the information processing for total energy requirement that progressively affects weight management and health.

Academic Attainment and Canadian Intercollegiate Athletics: Temporal Shifts

In this study the academic attainment of male and female intercollegiate athletes at a mid-sized Canadian university was examined for varying time periods in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. The academic performance of the athletes is compared, in each case, to a sample of non-athletes matched on year of first enrollment, academic program at first enrollment, and gender. On various measures the findings indicate that the student athletes performed increasingly well in comparison to their non-athlete counterparts from time period to time period. This pattern was more marked for females than males. In the 2000s, female athletes graduated successfully more often than female non-athletes and were more often enrolled in Honors programs. Female athletes consistently outperformed male athletes in all three time periods. We conclude by discussing the structure and culture of intercollegiate sport in Canada in order to broach the question of why the intercollegiate sport experience at this Canadian university has not hindered academic success. Comparisons with findings from American studies are ventured to offer a preliminary cross-cultural analysis of American/Canadian differences in intercollegiate sport culture.

Beyond the playing field: the role of athletic participation in early career success

Purpose– This paper aims to examine how participation in varsity athletics during college affects career success in the first decade after graduation. The paper predicted that student-athletes would develop greater mentoring skills and emotional intelligence, leading to higher starting salaries as they enter the professional workforce and faster rates of salary growth as their careers progress.Design/methodology/approach– Cross-sectional nationwide survey study.Findings– The paper finds that former collegiate athletes score higher on measures of mentoring and emotional intelligence and have higher salaries through the first ten years of their careers than their non-athlete counterparts. The paper also finds that there are significant interaction effects for gender, such that male athletes score higher than male non-athletes on measures of mentoring and emotional intelligence, while female athletes score the same as non-athletes on these measures. Gender also impacted salary differences, such that at the start of their careers, female student-athletes enjoyed a significant salary boost relative to male athletes and both male and female non-athletes, but saw this advantage decrease within five years and disappear altogether by the time they had worked ten years.Originality/value– This study highlights the ways in which participation in collegiate sports affects student-athletes, and how these effects differ for men and women. These findings are worthy of continued investigation and should encourage scholars to question how activities beyond the classroom might affect students' preparation for life and careers after college.

Prevalence of Disordered Eating: A Comparison of Male and Female Collegiate Athletes and Nonathletes

Eating disorder prevalence rates among athletes vary greatly because of the different ways in which researchers have measured and classified them, and the extent to which they are higher than those found among nonathletes remains unresolved. The present study examined prevalence of eating disorders, body image issues, and weight control behaviors using a valid diagnostic measure. Participants included 146 male and 156 female NCAA Division I student-athletes and a matched sample of 170 male and 353 female collegiate nonathletes. Overall, eating disorder prevalence rates and use of pathogenic weight control behaviors were lower among nonathletes than athletes. Rates for athletes in the current study were lower than previous studies. These findings are likely due to the lack of anonymity the athletes had when completing questionnaires, as data were collected through athletes’ preseason physicals, whereas nonathletes completed questionnaires anonymously over the Internet. Recommendations for athletic departments’ screening for eating disorders are made.

Eating behaviours in youths: A comparison between female and male athletes and non‐athletes

This study compared the different factors associated with eating behaviors among young female and male athletes and non-athletes. A total of 580 female and male athletes and 362 female and male non-athletes between 10 and 19 years old participated. We used the subscales of the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) to evaluate the factors associated with unhealthy eating behaviors. We found higher scores for females on the diet subscale compared with males, regardless of athletic group (P < 0.05). Non-athlete youths scored higher on this subscale compared with male athletes (P < 0.05). Our findings indicate higher scores for female athletes with regard to the bulimia and preoccupation with food subscale compared with other the groups (P < 0.05). Moreover, we observed that non-athlete males were more likely to engage in binge eating compared with athletes of the same sex (P < 0.05). Finally, females had higher scores on the oral self subscale than males, regardless of athletic group (P < 0.05). We concluded that the factors associated with eating behaviors differ with regard to sex and group.

Shoulder Strength Imbalances as Injury Risk in Handball

This study was conducted to analyze whether internal (IR) and external (ER) rotator shoulder muscles weakness and/or imbalance collected through a preseason assessment could be predictors of subsequent shoulder injury during a season in handball players. In preseason, 16 female elite handball players (HPG) and 14 healthy female nonathletes (CG) underwent isokinetic IR and ER strength test with use of a Con-Trex® dynamometer in a seated position with 45° shoulder abduction in scapular plane, at 60, 120 and 240°/s in concentric and at 60°/s in eccentric, for both sides. An imbalanced muscular strength profile was determined using -statistically selected cut-offs from CG values. For HPG, all newly incurred shoulder injuries were reported during the season. There were significant differences between HPG and CG only for dominant eccentric IR strength, ER/IR ratio at 240°/s and for IRecc/ERcon ratio. In HPG, IR and ER strength was higher, and ER/IR ratios lower for dominant than for nondominant side. The relative risk was 2.57 (95%CI: 1.60-3.54; P<0.05) if handball players had an imbalanced muscular strength profile. In youth female handball players IR and ER muscle strength increases on the dominant side without ER/IR imbalances; and higher injury risk was associated with imbalanced muscular strength profile.

Prevalence of signs and symptoms of temporomandibular dysfunction in female adolescent athletes and non-athletes

ObjectivesTo compare the prevalence of signs and symptoms of temporomandibular dysfunction (TMD) in female adolescent athletes and non-athletes and to examine the association between signs and symptoms of TMD in female adolescents in different Tanner stages. MethodsThe subjects were 89 female basketball and handball players ages 10–18 years and 72 female non-athlete adolescents ages 10–19 years selected from the Department of Pediatrics (School of Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo) as a control group. A survey was used to assess the signs and symptoms of TMD. According to the answers on the survey the adolescents were classified in two categories: no signs or symptoms present (score A-absent), at least one sign or symptom present (score P-present). The ones who got score “P” were submitted to a standardized functional examination of the masticatory system by four previously calibrated examiners. Pubertal status was assessed based on physical examination by physicians from our Division. The adolescents were classified according to Tanner stages into three subgroups: subgroup 1 (before the growth spurt), subgroup 2 (growth spurt period), subgroup 3 (end of growth spurt). Significant differences between athletes and non-athletes were assessed for categorical variables (Chi-square and Fisher's exact test) and for continuous variables (Mann–Whitney test). The level of significance used was 5%. There was significant agreement between raters, kappa-values (0.621–1.000) and ICC values (0.757–0.899). ResultsThere was no significant difference between the athletes and non-athletes in exhibiting at least one sign or symptom of TMD (p=0.301). When comparing the adolescents who presented at least one symptom of TMD to the different subgroups of Tanner stages no statistically significant differences were found (p=0.124). ConclusionThe lack of significant differences among female adolescent athletes and non-athletes and among the subgroups of Tanner stages may suggests that although contact sports increase the risk of temporomandibular joint lesions and estrogen levels are risk factor for onset of TMD, they do not impact significantly on the onset of this disorder, when considered alone.

Comparison of Blue-Yellow Opponent Color Contrast Sensitivity Function between Female Badminton Players and Non-athletes

To compare the chromatic contrast sensitivity function (CSF) for the blue-yellow opponent channel (BYOC) between female badminton players and non-athlete controls. We recruited 40 young females (18-25 years old) who played badminton for at least 5 consecutive years as the test group, and 30 age-matched female controls who had no history of regular physical activity. The Pattern Generator™ system was used to test the CSF for the BYOC which was performed at three spatial frequencies (SFs) of 2 cycles per degree (cpd), 5 cpd, and 25 cpd. Comparison of BYOC thresholds showed significantly better results in the test group for all three SFs (P<0.001). Band pass shift (better CSF in the middle SF) was seen in the test group. The control group had low pass (better CSF in the low SF). Ocular motility (heterophoria, fusional convergence and divergence at far and near distances, and near point of convergence) was better in the test group, but the inter-group difference was not significant. The BYOC threshold results for badminton players indicated a better visual performance which may be a result of enhanced performance of the parallel processing of the parvocellular and magnocellular systems. This may be inherent and/or acquired in badminton players. In addition, badminton players appear to have developed sensory-motor programmed activities. Testing the CSF for BYOC may be useful for athlete selection in different levels and/or used as a criterion for screening players in the field of badminton.