Female Labor Research Articles

The Association between Hand Grip Strength and Forearm Dimensions in Healthy Bangladeshi Female Tea Garden Workers

Background: The evaluation of anthropometry is beneficial to different prospective research. Anthropometric study data also provides information on what kind of labor is performed by an individual. Hand grip strength can vary based on several factors, the primary one being the type of work that the person performs. In our country, the tea garden sector employs a large number of people. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the forearm anthropometry and grip strength of the female tea garden laborers of Bangladesh. Materials and methods: This was a cross-sectional descriptive type of study. The study was carried out at the Anatomy Department of Sylhet MAG Osmani Medical College in Sylhet. The total duration of the study was one year. A total of one hundred female tea state employees were enlisted for this study. The women tea garden workers, age ranging in age from 20 to 50 years, were specifically chosen. Data was collected by researchers themselves and documented in a pre-designed data sheet. The individuals' forearm length and carrying angle of both sides were measured. The grip strength of the dominant and non-dominant hands was also measured. The data were displayed as a percentage and mean ± SD. Regression analysis for the correlation was conducted. Tables and figures were used for data presentation. Results: The mean carrying angle were 13.39±1.21 and 13.09±1.07 cm on the right and left side respectively. The mean forearm length was 22.77±1.67 cm and 22.64±1.63 cm on the right and left side respectively. The mean right hand grip strength was 25.82±2.76 kg. The mean left hand grip strength was 17.74±1.82 kg. Significant positive relationship of hand grip strength was found with carrying angle and forearm length of both side. Conclusion: Forearm length and carrying angle were positively correlated with the dominant handgrip strength of female tea garden workers in Bangladesh. BJME, Volume-16, Issue-01, January 2025: 40-48

Gender Inequality in the Labor Market: Continuing Progress?

This article examines the trends in women’s economic outcomes in the United States, focusing primarily on labor force participation, occupational attainment, and the gender wage gap. Considerable progress was made on all dimensions prior to the 1990s followed by a slowing or stalling of gains thereafter, with a plateauing of female labor force participation trends and a slowing of women’s occupational and wage convergence with men. The author considers the likelihood that progress in narrowing gender gaps will resume in these areas, and concludes it is unlikely without policy intervention. She then considers new policy initiatives to address work–family issues and labor market discrimination that may help to increase female labor force participation and narrow gender inequities in the labor market.

Commodified by displacement: the effects of forced displacement on Syrian refugee women in Lebanon’s agricultural sector

Abstract In an effort to contribute to an emergent body of ethnographic work addressing the labour economy of forced displacement and the contribution of women refugee-labour more precisely, the article uses the case-study of Syrian refugee women in Lebanon’s agriculture to uncover how forced displacement has contributed to the exploitation of an already-commodified, invisible, and migrantized workforce. While there is an established and diverse body of literature that investigates female labour invisibility in agriculture (on the one hand), and the relationship between labour commodification and agriculture (on the other hand), less discussed is the relationship between forced displacement and female labour commodification. Based on ethnographic research including interviews and participant observations conducted between May 2018 and September 2019 in Lebanon’s Bekaa valley, this article demonstrates how refugee-labourers are subjected to various tactics and instruments of labour coercion, which affect their decision-making power in both the work sphere and the domestic sphere, reinforcing their invisibility as cheap labour and docile refugees. A closer investigation into the labour dynamics on site yet reveals a much more complex reality where women engage in various acts of negotiations by making instrumental use of their femaleness. Notwithstanding the situation of forced displacement, the conditions facing the case of these female refugee-labourers mirrors more broadly the structural problems inherent to contracted labour regimes in corporatized sectors like agriculture.

The Prevalence of Female Contraception in a Zero-Growth Population Policy

This study aims to describe why couples decide to have unmet needs and the impact on the family and the country of these decisions. The study used mixed methods. Qualitative, qualitative and secondary data analysis (quantitative). The results of the study High unmet need does not always lead to high fertility. Education, high female labor participation, and female empowerment are among the supporting factors. Independent women have a unique perspective in interpreting children. Women have the capacity to decide and analyze the presence of children. When a child is considered a burden on the family, it will be limited to have children. There's a group that identifies themselves as unmet need, but the TFR rate in a region remains stable. The willingness to spread children apart, or not have more children, and sexual intercourse without contraceptives have high no-birth outcomes. The conclusion is that not all unmet need contributes to a high TFR. Sexual intercourse without contraceptives, and still making TFR stable can be a new discourse for reproductive health issues of the people who use it.This study aims to describe why couples decide to have unmet needs and the impact on the family and the country of these decisions. The study used mixed methods. Qualitative, qualitative and secondary data analysis (quantitative). The results of the study High unmet need does not always lead to high fertility. Education, high female labor participation, and female empowerment are among the supporting factors. Independent women have a unique perspective in interpreting children. Women have the capacity to decide and analyze the presence of children. When a child is considered a burden on the family, it will be limited to have children. There's a group that identifies themselves as unmet need, but the TFR rate in a region remains stable. The willingness to spread children apart, or not have more children, and sexual intercourse without contraceptives have high no-birth outcomes. The conclusion is that not all unmet need contributes to a high TFR. Sexual intercourse without contraceptives, and still making TFR stable can be a new discourse for reproductive health issues of the people who use it.

Analysis of the Factors of Women's Empowerment of MSME actors on Per Capita Income in Indonesia

Women's empowerment remains a challenge in optimizing human resources, particularly women, in productive activities that can enhance income and overall welfare. Limited women's involvement in economic, political, and labor sectors across most provinces in Indonesia highlights the urgency of this issue. This study aims to analyze the influence of women's empowerment factors—specifically the Gender Development Index (GDI/IPG), Gender Empowerment Index (GEI/IDG), Female Labor Force Participation Rate (TPAK Female), and Women's Wages—on per capita income as a proxy for economic growth in Indonesia. The research was conducted on 34 provinces in Indonesia over the period 2017–2021. The study employed a panel data regression analysis method using E-Views 13 software to identify relationships between the specified variables and per capita income. The results showed that the Gender Development Index (GDI) and Women's Wages have a significant positive effect on per capita income, indicating their importance in driving economic growth. However, the Gender Empowerment Index (GEI) and Female Labor Force Participation Rate (TPAK Female) did not show a significant effect on per capita income. These findings imply that efforts to improve women's wages and human development outcomes for women, such as health, education, and quality of life, are crucial in enhancing economic welfare. Policymakers should focus on strategies to reduce gender disparities and increase investments in women's education, skills, and income-generating opportunities to boost economic growth and achieve equitable development.

Economic Growth and Female Labor Participation in Islamic Countries: Evidence from Labor Kuznets Curve

As a result of industrialization and various economic developments, female participation in the labor force has been ensured and this participation has increased day by day. Public, and private sector representatives make various investments, especially for including females in the labor force. There are many studies in the literature on the relationship between female participation in the labor force and economic development processes. The main question of this study is whether it is possible to differentiate the U-shape, which is realized as pre-industrial and post-industrial in modern countries, in Islamic countries. Contrary to the existing literature, the study argues that there is an inverted U-shaped (Kuznets curve) relationship between female labor and economic growth in Islamic countries, not a U-shaped relationship. Accordingly, it is argued that women in Islamic countries join the labor force when the economy is deteriorating and leave the labor force when the economy is improving. Within the framework of this hypothesis, the study investigates the Kuznets curve relationship between female labor force participation and economic development using data from 39 Islamic countries between 1990 and 2019. The study employs panel data analysis, a quantitative research method, to explore this relationship. As a result of the study, the Kuznets curve was found in at least one model in Iran, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Kyrgyz Republic, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania, Sudan, Tunisia, Senegal and Comoros. The U-shaped feminization hypothesis is confirmed in at least one model in Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, Malaysia, Oman, Türkiye, Yemen, UAE, Burkina Faso, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. In line with the study's claim, some Islamic countries represent the Kuznets curve contrary to the general feminization U theory. Religion, culture, and legal codes are thought to be the reason behind the Kuznets curve found between female labor force participation rate and economic development.

The Influence of Female Labor Force Participation on Economic Growth in Palestine: An ARDL Approach

تبحث هذه الورقة تأثير مشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة على النمو الاقتصادي في فلسطين، المقاس من خلال اللوغاريتم الطبيعي للناتج المحلي الإجمالي. على الرغم من الجهود المستمرة لتعزيز المساواة بين الجنسين، لا تزال مشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة في فلسطين منخفضة بشكل ملحوظ، مما يمثل فرصة مهدرة للنمو والتطوير الاقتصادي. تستخدم هذه الدراسة نموذج الانحدار الذاتي للفجوات الزمنية الموزعة (ARDL) ونموذج التصحيح غير المقيد للخطأ (UECM) لتحليل البيانات من عام 2000 إلى عام 2022، التي تم الحصول عليها من البنك الدولي. تشمل الأهداف الرئيسية تقييم التأثيرات قصيرة وطويلة الأجل لمشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة على النمو الاقتصادي، وتقييم سرعة التكيف مع التغيرات في مشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة. يحدد نموذج ARDL تأثيرات إيجابية كبيرة لنسبة مشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة على الناتج المحلي الإجمالي في الأجلين القصير والطويل. يشير اختبار الحدود إلى وجود علاقة توازنية طويلة الأجل بين نسبة مشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة والناتج المحلي الإجمالي، وتؤكد نتائج نموذج التصحيح غير المقيد للخطأ هذه النتائج، مشيرة إلى سرعة تعديل كبيرة نحو التوازن طويل الأجل. تشير النتائج إلى أن زيادة مشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة يمكن أن تعزز النمو الاقتصادي بشكل كبير في فلسطين، مما يؤدي إلى فوائد اقتصادية طويلة الأجل. تبرز هذه النتائج أهمية السياسات المستهدفة لتقليل العوائق أمام توظيف النساء وتعزيز المساواة الإسلامية (العدالة) وعدم التمييز في سوق العمل. يمكن أن تشمل هذه السياسات تحسين الوصول إلى التدريب المهني، وتطبيق أطر قانونية داعمة، ومعالجة المساواة الجوهرية والتحويلية لتمكين الأنشطة الاقتصادية للمرأة. تساهم هذه الورقة في الأدبيات الحالية من خلال تقديم أدلة تجريبية قوية على الدور الحاسم لمشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة في دفع النمو الاقتصادي في فلسطين. تدعم نتائج الدراسة صياغة سياسات تعزز من مشاركة المرأة في القوى العاملة، مما يؤدي إلى فوائد اقتصادية طويلة الأجل ومستقبل مشرق لاقتصاد فلسطين. ينبغي أن تركز الأبحاث المستقبلية على استكشاف تأثير التدخلات المحددة ودراسات مقارنة عبر سياقات اقتصادية اجتماعية مماثلة لتعميق الفهم لهذه الديناميكيات.

Forecasting the Gender Wage Gap in Argentina from a Productivity-Based Approach

This paper analyzes the association between the gender wage gap (GWG) and productivity at the industry level in Argentina from 2002 to 2022, drawing on gender studies and literature on structural change. Using dynamic OLS regression with random effects across the 1st to 4th quantiles, we examine the relationship between the GWG, female labor participation, and industry productivity. Results indicate that increased female participation is positively associated with reductions in the wage gap in the least productive industries. Additionally, female education rates contribute positively to reducing the GWG. The findings also reveal that productivity gains in the most productive sectors help narrow the gender wage gap, suggesting that structural shifts toward higher productivity levels may play a role in closing this gap.

The payroll tax contribution limit and women's labor market outcomes

AbstractObjectiveTo examine the effect of the male partner's entry into payroll tax‐exempt earnings on the female partner's labor market outcomes.BackgroundEmployees only pay payroll taxes up to a specific limit, which results in a comparatively greater increase in the take‐home pay of individuals who earn labor incomes above this threshold. We argue that returns from payroll‐exempt labor are gendered: That is, because men are more likely high earners than women, they will more often benefit from the payroll tax ceiling. This increases the labor market returns of men and sets substantial incentives within couples to reduce the paid labor of the secondary earner.MethodWe use panel data from the United States (PSID) to examine changes in women's annual work hours, hourly wages, and earnings over the partner's entry into payroll tax‐exempt labor (treatment) using fixed‐effect models with individual slopes. The models enable us to assess women's labor market outcomes while adjusting for heterogeneous within‐couple earnings differential slopes before treatment in addition to any time‐constant heterogeneity. Our sample contains 7297 women providing 65,811 observations.ResultsWomen's earnings on average diminished by 4% after the partner breaks through the payroll tax contribution threshold. This was mostly explained by changes in annual work hours, which on average decreased by 4%. We did not find reduced hourly wages in the short run.ConclusionWe conclude that payroll exemptions for high earners reinforce gender inequality within upper‐income couples, which is a link hitherto missed in the literature.

The Impact of Technological Progress on the Gender Wage Gap

Technological advancements not only enhance the income levels of workers but also modify the gender wage disparity. Utilizing the "task-based model" and the "brain-muscle dual-factor model," this analysis investigates the implications of technological advancements on the gender gap, employing micro-econometric methods to examine variables associated with wage and income performance differentials attributable to gender. Through the efficient allocation of resources, technological progress has reduced the relative cost of manual labor while elevating the worth of cognitive labor, thereby transforming the traditional labor market that has been predominantly manual labor-oriented. In this context, women, leveraging their strengths in communication, coordination, and focus, demonstrate a greater adaptability to the demands of cognitive work, resulting in enhanced competitiveness within the labor market. By aligning the regional level of technological advancement (specifically at the prefecture-level city) with the mixed micro-individual cross-sectional data from the CFPS database for the years 2018 and 2020, the findings reveal several key insights: a notable wage disparity persists between male and female workers throughout the sample period; the impact of technological progress significantly boosts wage growth among laborers, particularly benefiting female workers, which suggests a reduction in the gender wage gap; female laborers in rural areas experience more pronounced positive incentives regarding wage income compared to their urban counterparts; and, in geographical comparisons, women in the central region receive more substantial positive incentives in wage income relative to those in the eastern and western regions. Consequently, it is imperative for each region to expedite technological advancement, refine the employment structure for women, and foster technological progress to mitigate the gender wage gap.

Impact of Women's Empowerment on Female Account Ownership: A Case Study of Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries (2011 – 2021)

This study investigated women's empowerment and its impact on female account ownership, using selected sub-Saharan African countries as a case study from 2011 to 2021. The central research question covers whether women's empowerment has any impact on the financial inclusion of women in sub-Saharan Africa, with an emphasis on account ownership by women as a yardstick to measure financial inclusion. The selected women empowerment variables comprised the percentage of the total labour force, namely female labour force (FLF), equality in the rights to ownership of property (EOR), non-discrimination of women in employment (NDW), choice of where to live by women (CWL), mean years of schooling of females (MYS), and women political empowerment (WPE). By means of pooled ordinary least square regression, using the fixed effects estimation model applied to the panel data from 38 sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries with available data for the period 2011 to 2021, as reported on the three-yearly database, this research was able to establish the impact of some of the selected variables of women empowerment on female account ownership in SSA. This study hinges on the undeniable potential of women to lift Africa from multi-dimensional poverty since a greater proportion of household consumption is contributed by the income of women rather than men in Africa. The authors, therefore, recommend, among others, that African governments should invest in policies that will encourage gender equality and women's emancipation to boost women's empowerment, which is the gateway to enhanced financial inclusion of African women and the attendant gain of accelerated poverty reduction in Africa.

Globalization and changing gender norms: A comparative study of working women in Japan, Singapore, and India

Globalization's impacts on gender roles in Asia remain inadequately understood despite extensive scholarship on women's empowerment worldwide. This comparative study investigates how increasing integration into the global economy shapes gender norms and labor force gender gaps in Japan, Singapore and India. Quantitative analysis of World Bank indicators over 1990-2020 reveals divergent patterns; while female labor participation rates converge towards egalitarian norms in Japan and Singapore (rising from 48.89% to 49.29%, and 51.34% to 60.01% respectively), India exhibits persistence of gaping gender imbalances, only narrowing from 32.7% to 32.9% over thirty years. These macro-level trends provide impetus for follow-up qualitative phenomenological study through 1) ethnographic observations of professional women in Tokyo, Delhi and Singapore and 2) in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 60 total working women (n=20 per site) across corporate, service and informal sectors. Thematic analysis of narratives will elucidate common and distinctive mechanisms by which global and local forces interact to moderate traditional patriarchal attitudes and yield varied empowerment outcomes for Asian women. Blending macro-statistical and ground-level qualitative approaches enables holistic understanding of globalization's socioeconomic influences on renegotiating gender relations in context. Findings will inform theory and practice on global forces, development and women's welfare in late modernity.

Place-based policies, structural change and female labor: Evidence from India’s Special Economic Zones

This paper quantifies the local economic impact of special economic zones (SEZs) established in India between 2005 and 2013. Using a novel dataset that combines census information on the universe of Indian firms with geo-referenced data on SEZs, we find that the establishment of SEZs increased local manufacturing and service employment, with positive spillovers up to 10 km from the SEZ area. The analysis shows that the gains in manufacturing and service employment were accompanied by a decline in agricultural labor, especially for women, suggesting that the policy contributed to structural change. In further analysis, we document that significant local employment effects occur across different types of SEZs: privately and publicly run zones, and SEZs with different industry designations.

Off the books, away from the market: Clan culture and female labor force participation

This study examines the persistent impact of historical Chinese clan culture on contemporary female labor force participation. Using the hand-collected genealogy data from China, we find that traditional clan-based gender biases significantly suppress women's employment, with the husband's clan heritage strongly influencing the wife's work decisions. The gender bias embedded in Chinese clan culture is the primary driver linking clan heritage to reduced female labor force participation. While women from clan-oriented backgrounds exhibit labor market advantages, these are primarily driven by self-selection into the workforce rather than direct causal effects.

Gender inequality in time allocation across life stages: a comparative study in a Latin American country

ABSTRACT The study analyzes gender differences in time use in the Latin American context, from a comparative perspective (2010–2019) and across life stages. Particularly, the study presents evidence on the likelihood of women and men spending time on three types of activities: Household work, paid work activities, and personal activities. Logistic regression was applied using data from time use surveys conducted in Peru in 2010 and 2019. The results suggests that women were much more likely to spend additional time on household work, while men were more likely to spend additional time on paid work and personal activities. However, these differences became less pronounced in 2019. In terms of age groups, a U-shaped and an inverted U-shaped pattern were found for paid work activities and household chores respectively. In both cases, the largest gender gap was found in the 30–39 age group, possibly related to motherhood. The originality of the research lies in providing a comprehensive analysis of gender inequality in time use in a developing country that has one of the highest rates of female labor force participation in the region, and is also characterized by a patriarchal structure in which machismo and marianismo influence time distribution.

Information and communication technology and female employment in India

We revisit the issue of declining female labour force participation in India by investigating the role of information and communication technology (ICT) adoption. Given that ICT has been rapidly penetrating in India in the past few decades, we explore the impact of ICT ownership and use on female labour market behaviour. We use a nationally representative survey, the India Human Development Survey and estimate instrumental variable regression models and find that ICT adoption increases the likelihood of female employment. Our results show that the positive impact of ICT adoption is limited to individuals who are salaried or are self-employed. Further, we find that ICT adoption increases (decreases) the likelihood of entry into (exit from) the labour market. We contrast our analysis by comparing it with male employment and find evidence of differential impact of ICT adoption. Finally, we find that the effect is limited to women with relatively higher levels of education and those belonging to relatively higher income households. We investigate the potential channels that could drive our results and find that women who adopt ICT have more flexible work options where they spend lesser time to travel to work, have a higher autonomy in work related decisions and a higher willingness to enter the workforce. Thus, ICT adoption by reducing information asymmetries in the labour market could increase female labour market participation.

Can participation in global value chains improve female labor force participation? A firm-level empirical investigation

Can participation in global value chains improve female labor force participation? A firm-level empirical investigation

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on intra-household gender disparities in the Middle East and North Africa region: A scoping review protocol.

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is a global outlier both for its low female labor force participation and investment in early childhood development services, and consistently ranks lowest on global rankings of gender parity. While the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on global gender inequity has been acknowledged, specific challenges faced by partnered-women in MENA are underexplored. Additionally, with over half of the region affected by conflict and displacement, exploring these impacts sheds light on understudied gender disparities in humanitarian contexts during the pandemic. This scoping review aims to examine intra-household gender disparities during the COVID-19 pandemic, adding to a more comprehensive understanding of this particular public health emergency's worldwide ramifications. The hypothesis is that the pandemic has exacerbated women's pre-existing constraints in the MENA region, worsening gender inequities in economic empowerment, healthcare access, and general well-being. This review will explore intra-household gender disparities in decision-making, household labor division, economic independence, health, and access to resources and services during the COVID-19 pandemic that have been reported to have been affected by COVID-19 globally. Following PRISMA guidelines for Scoping Reviews, a comprehensive search will be conducted in APA PsycINFO, Arab World Research Source: Al Masdar, EconLit, Global Health, MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science Core Collection, in consultation with an information specialist. Studies in English, French and Arabic from January 2020 to August 2024 will be included. Four independent reviewers will screen studies, and data will be charted, coded, and narratively synthesized. This review is expected to shed light on gender disparities in healthcare accessibility, mobility, and decision-making during the COVID-19 pandemic across low- and middle-income countries in the MENA region, adding to the global literature.

Impact of female labour force participation on the economic growth: Evidence from Saudi Arabia

This study investigates the impact of female labor force participation (FLFP) on the economic growth in Saudi Arabia, a country currently implementing extensive socio-economic reforms. We conduct a sectoral and regional analysis using regression techniques on data from 2015 to 2023. Our findings indicate that FLFP has a statistically significant positive effect on the gross domestic product (GDP) across all regions in Saudi Arabia. However, the impact is not uniform across different sectors. Notably, substantial contributions to GDP growth are observed in the Transport, Storage & Communication, and Community, Social & Personal Services sectors. By addressing the intersectionality of gender dynamics and economic growth, this study provides valuable insights for policymakers, businesses, and stakeholders. These insights are crucial for fostering inclusive economic growth and promoting gender equality as part of Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 objectives.

Governance and information technology for female labour force participation in the African Continental Free Trade Area

The motivation of the present study is to complement the extant literature by assessing the relevance of governance and information technology in how African trade affects female labour force participation. The study focuses on 48 African countries using data for the period 1996–2021. An adopted empirical strategy is the fixed effects regressions that are designed to address concerns for simultaneity and the unobserved heterogeneity. The fractional probit model based on the pooled Bernoulli quasi-maximum likelihood method is also employed. The following main findings are established. First, governance moderates intra-African trade to engender positive synergies on female labour force participation. The positive synergies are apparent from the overall quality of institutions, government effectiveness and the rule of law. Second, information technology does not significantly moderate intra-African trade to affect female labour force participation. The established findings from fixed effects regressions are robust to fractional probit model estimations. The findings are relevant in informing policy makers on how governance can be used to moderate the influence of African trade in promoting female labour force participation. Policy implications are discussed.