Female Athletes Research Articles

Energy Availability in Female Collegiate Beach Volleyball Athletes.

Willingham, BD, Daou, M, VanArsdale, J, Thomas, M, and Saracino, PG. Energy availability in female collegiate beach volleyball athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(11): 1941-1950, 2024-Low energy availability (LEA) is a present risk for many female athletes. Yet, the literature on LEA is often reliant on single, short-term, snapshots, which may not be reflective of the chronic energy balance surrounding female athletes in sport. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to establish the current prevalence of LEA in female collegiate beach volleyball athletes during the preseason and across the competitive season. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare measures of EA (i.e., dietary intake, activity energy expenditure [EE], body composition) and EE (i.e., resting metabolic rate and thermic effect of feeding) at 4 timepoints-once in the preseason (i.e., Fall), and 3 times across the 10-week competitive season in Spring (i.e., week 1, week 5, and week 9). Significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Although mean EA was in the subclinical zone (i.e., 30-45 kcal·kg FFM-1·d-1) at each timepoint, the prevalence of LEA for individuals was 30.8% in the preseason, 37.5% at week 1, 25.0% at week 5, and 62.5% at week 9. Further, carbohydrate intake was below the recommended range for power athletes at each timepoint, suggesting that female beach volleyball athletes with LEA may benefit from increasing carbohydrate intake. Despite no statistical differences in body mass across the season (p = 0.577), there was a trend for increasing fat-free mass (p = 0.062) as the season progressed. Importantly, LEA is not a team-wide condition but an individual one. Therefore, approaches to mitigate LEA should be individualized.

Change-of-Direction Performance and Its Deficits in Relation to Countermovement-Jump Height and Phase-Specific Performance Among Female Athletes.

Jump and linear sprint performances both correlate with pro-agility performance. However, correlation does not imply causation, and potential confounders may affect the correlation. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the relationship between change-of-direction (COD) performance and COD deficits (COD-D) in linear-sprint and countermovement-jump (CMJ)-related performance using multiple stepwise linear-regression models. The study included 42 female national-level intercollegiate athletes. The 10- and 20-m linear-sprint and pro-agility times, COD-D, CMJ height, and phase-specific force production and rate of force development during eccentric unloading, eccentric braking, and the concentric phases of CMJ were measured. Stepwise linear-regression analyses were used to predict the factors related to COD and COD-D. CMJ height was the sole predictor in the 10-m pro-agility model (adjusted R2 = .234, P = .001). Modified Reactive Strength Index (standardized coefficient, -.710) and the lowest center-of-mass depth during the CMJ (standardized coefficient, .323) were predictors in the 20-m pro-agility model (adjusted R2 = .330, P < .001). For the 10- and 20-m COD-D models, the rate of force development at 30 and 60milliseconds, respectively, during the concentric phase was the only predictor of performance (adjusted R2 = .183, P = .003 and .237, P = .001, respectively). These results suggest that athletes should concentrate on improving their CMJ height, increasing their ability to lower their center of mass more deeply, and increasing their instantaneous force-production abilities immediately after the eccentric braking phase of CMJ to improve their COD performance.

Preparing Future Change Agents: A Commitment to Social Justice

The 2024 American Kinesiology Association Undergraduate Education Network session included a keynote address titled “Preparing Future Change Agents: A Commitment to Social Justice.” From my lived experience, I learned much from being marginalized as a female athlete. Through reflecting on these experiences and my formal education, the question asked was, What were those pivotal experiences that developed attitudes and values toward all-consuming social justice? Besides having parents who reinforced that one can do anything they set their mind to do, living across the country and learning the value of diversity and having educationally impactful experiences in the “world classroom” had a huge impact on my valuing diversity. From my formal educational experiences, I remember few lecture-type classes. Content knowledge is important, but the more impactful classes and experiences were experiential and hands-on. The following are my reflections and recommendations for preparing future change agents.

Sleep, Fatigue, and Recovery Profiles of the Longest Solo Unsupported One-Way Polar Ski Journey Across Antarctica.

Antarctic expeditions are exceptional physiological challenges. Sleep plays a critical role in athletic performance, recovery, and wellness, with sleep disturbances having a negative impact on health and performance. The authors investigated sleep, fatigue, and recovery profiles of the longest solo unsupported one-way polar ski journey across Antarctica. A 33-year-old woman covered 1484.53km from Hercules Inlet to the South Pole, finishing at the Ross Ice Shelf, in 70days and 16hours. Questionnaires on sleep (Pittsburgh Insomnia Rating Scale and Karolinska Sleepiness Scale), fatigue (Subjective Assessment of Fatigue), recovery (Total Quality Recovery), and wellness were completed at different time points (before, during, and after the expedition). Average daily sleep time was between 4 and 5hours, increasing to 7hours for the final part of the expedition. Satisfaction of sleep and lack of energy deteriorated as the expedition progressed, alongside signs of clinical insomnia. Fatigue and muscle soreness increased with increasing milage, with extreme levels and very poor recovery toward the end of the expedition. Despite this, the adventurer continued to perform on extremely high levels. Postexpedition scores returned to baseline, demonstrating the incredible adaptation and ability to recovery. The postexpedition interview showed that prior experience of an Antarctic expedition may have prepared the athlete and made her more resilient for this challenge. The data provide unique insights into Antarctic expeditions and may help us understand the limits of human performance when planning future expeditions of this nature. Female athletes are capable of extreme challenges, breaking established performance boundaries.

The Relationship between Beighton Score and Biomechanical Risk Factors among Adolescent, Female Volleyball Players

ObjectiveTo investigate the relationship between Beighton score and biomechanical risk factors, such as knee valgus, in female, adolescent volleyball players. DesignCross-sectional study. SettingBiomechanics laboratory. Participants25 adolescent, club-level female volleyball athletes (14.5 ± 1.8 years) were tested between 9/2021 – 11/2021. Main outcome measuresParticipants were asked to perform a double-leg vertical jump (DLVJ), a single-leg squat (SLS), and a single-leg drop landing (SLDL). Peak coronal plane angles during the DLVJ, SLS, and SLDL were computed. Spearman correlations were performed to identify significant relationships between Beighton score and biomechanical variables. ResultsPeak knee valgus was found to be moderately correlated to Beighton score during the DLVJ-Land (r = 0.487, p = 0.014), SLDL (r = 0.478, p = 0.016), and SLS (r = 0.439, p = 0.028) tasks. ConclusionsOverall, adolescent volleyball players with higher Beighton scores tended to exhibit a greater peak knee valgus, suggesting that such athletes could benefit from a targeted neuromuscular training or injury prevention program.

Influence of peak exercise-induced blood pressure on basal to apical myocardial wall thickness in elite athletes: a sex-specific CMR study

Abstract Background Understanding the sex-specific physiological remodelling response of the myocardial walls to peak exercise-induced blood pressure (SBPpeak) is essential for distinguishing healthy adaptation from pathological remodelling in athletes. Purpose We investigated how SBPpeak relates to myocardial wall thickness measured using cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) in elite athletes. Methods Cross-sectional analysis of healthy elite athletes included in the ELITE study who underwent both cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) and CMR. Imaging software’s built-in AI option determined average end-diastolic wall thicknesses of all sixteen AHA-defined segments on short-axis cine images with four-chamber long-axis reference. Our primary metrics of interest were Spearman's correlations between SBPpeak and left ventricular mass indexed to body surface area (LVM/BSA), as well as average wall thickness across the sixteen myocardial segments, stratified by sex and endurance/non-endurance sports status. Secondary analyses involved regression models to evaluate the influence of SBPpeak on myocardial wall thickness, adjusting for sex, body size, CPET variables and sport type. Results In 75 athletes (median age: 24; 71% female; 61% engaged in endurance sports), CPET and CMR were performed within a median interval of 5 months [interquartile range: 1-13 months]. SBPpeak was similar in female and male athletes (170 [160-180] vs. 174 [169-184] mmHg, p=0.121, respectively) and in endurance and non-endurance athletes (both 170 [160-180] mmHg, p=0.625). Female elite athletes showed weak to moderate positive correlations between SBPpeak and the majority of basal and mid-ventricular AHA segments (rho = 0.27 – 0.48, Figure). This was most pronounced in the mid-ventricular anterolateral segment (AHA06: rho = 0.48, p&amp;lt;0.001). LVM/BSA in females was positively correlated with SBPpeak (rho = 0.31, p=0.025). Male elite athletes demonstrated greater absolute wall thickness across all AHA segments compared to females, however, there was a moderate correlation with SBPpeak exclusive to the basal anterior segment (AHA01: rho = 0.48, p=0.028). Backward stepwise multivariate regression analyses (Table) revealed SBPpeak as an independent predictor of the thickness of all basal AHA segments except for the basal inferoseptal segment (AHA03), and the mid-anterior and anterolateral segments. Associationswere maintained after adjustment for maximum wattage, body surface area, and sex, with type of sports consistently excluded from the models. Conclusion In the extreme phenotypes of elite athletes, SBPpeak correlates especially with basal myocardial thickness, independent of sex, BSA and maximum work rate influences. We found stronger associations between SBPpeak and myocardial adaptation in female athletes. These findings suggest a paramount role of exercise-induced blood pressure on basal myocardial remodelling surpassing the effect of sports type.Figure:segmental polar plot (heat map)Table:GAM regression models

Structural echocardiographic parameters in male and female Asian athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract Introduction Following repetitive structured and intense physical training, elite athletes’ hearts undergo physiological cardiac remodelling, including increased left ventricular (LV) size and LV wall thickness. These changes may mimic those seen in pathological cardiac conditions such as dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, posing a challenge for accurate diagnosis. Reference ranges for common echocardiographic parameters in elite Caucasian and Black athletes have been reported, facilitating differentiation between physiological and pathological changes in these demographics. However, there remains a paucity of data for Asian athletes despite their increasing representation in global sport. Methods We searched MEDLINE via PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Database for relevant studies from inception till 20th November 2023. We included observational studies that reported relevant echocardiographic parameters in elite Asian athletes. Studies that did not report gender-specific cardiac imaging parameters were excluded. After study selection and data extraction, random-effects meta-analysis of means was performed to obtain the weighted mean and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of common echocardiographic parameters stratified by gender. Results Our final search yielded 10 studies comprising a total of 1,111 elite athletes (996 male, 115 female; 53% Japanese, 21% uncategorised, 14% South-East Asian). Athletes participating in skill and power disciplines were excluded from analysis post-hoc due to a paucity of data and extreme data ranges. In male athletes, mean LV wall thickness was 9.4 mm (95% CI 8.5-10.3, I2 = 98.9%), mean LV end diastolic diameter was 54.7 mm (95% CI 52.5-57.0, I2 = 98.6%), mean LV mass indexed to body surface area was 97.5 g/m2 (95% CI 90.5-104.5, I2 = 97.5%) and mean aortic root diameter was 31.9 mm (95% CI 29.2-34.7, I2 = 99.5%). In female athletes, mean LV wall thickness was 7.9 mm (95% CI 7.5-8.4, I2 = 85.4%), mean LV end diastolic diameter was 47.1 mm (95% CI 45.8-48.3, I2 = 77.3%), mean LV mass indexed to body surface area was 79.5 g/m2 (95% CI 69.2-89.7, I2 = 92.8%) and mean aortic root diameter was 27.5 mm (95% CI 26.9-28.1). Conclusion This meta-analysis describes commonly reported echocardiographic parameters in elite Asian athletes from endurance and mixed sport disciplines. The absolute values of all reported parameters appear to fall far below reported limits for non-Asian athletes, highlighting substantial ethnic and regional variation in cardiac remodelling in elite athletes. While our results facilitate preliminary referencing of expected normal ranges in this demographic group, further studies are necessary to fully define the cardiac characteristics of Asian athletes.

Cardiac magnetic resonance characteristics of the athlete's heart: deeper insights into cardiac remodelling

Abstract Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) offers precise quantification for myocardial parameters. Understanding the effects of different training volumes on the athlete’s heart could be the key to distinguishing between cardiac conditions. This study aims to investigate CMR parameters including T1- and T2 mapping in healthy athletes and less active individuals and explore their relationship with training volumes in both sexes. We included healthy athletes (weekly training hours &amp;gt;7) and less active age- and sex-matched control individuals (weekly training hours ≤6), and performed CMR examinations. We assessed ventricular volumes, masses, and function, and conducted T1- and T2-mapping on non-contrast short-axis images. A total of 270 CMR examinations were conducted, comprising 185 athletes (119 males, mean age 22±6 years, weekly training hours: 19±7) and 85 controls (50 males, mean age 26±3 years, weekly training hours: 3±2). In male athletes compared to less active individuals, we observed pronounced signs of sports-related cardiac remodeling, including increased end-diastolic volume and mass index (Left ventricular end-diastolic volume index (LVEDVi): 120±16 vs 97±12 ml/m2, p&amp;lt;0.001; left ventricular mass index (LVMi): 70±14 vs 53±9 g/m2, p&amp;lt;0.001). Similarly, female athletes exhibited significant sports adaptations compared to controls (LVEDVi: 103±12 vs 86±11 ml/m2, p&amp;lt;0.001; LVMi: 54±9 vs 39±5 g/m2, p&amp;lt;0.001). T1-mapping values in athletes were lower than in the control group for both sexes (males: 939±25 vs 961±20 p&amp;lt;0.001, females: 966±21 vs 985±17, p&amp;lt;0.001). T1 values showed negative correlations with training hours (r=-0.362, p&amp;lt;0.001), LVEDVi (r=-0.411, p&amp;lt;0.001), and LVMi (r=-0.546, p&amp;lt;0.001). A significant association between T1 values and training hours persisted across various models. In the raw model, every additional training hour correlated with a T1 reduction of 0.946 ms (p&amp;lt;0.001). Adjusting for age, sex, and heart rate (HR) in model 2, the association remained significant, with each additional training hour corresponding to a T1 reduction of 0.825 ms (p&amp;lt;0.001). Further adjustments for LVMi in model 3 revealed a significant association, with a decrease of 0.565 ms in T1 values for each additional training hour (p=0.002). Among athletes, training years associated with decreased T1 and increased ventricular end-diastolic volumes and myocardial mass indices (LVEDVi: r=0,232, p=0,002; p&amp;lt;0,001; LVMi: r=0,279, p&amp;lt;0,001; T1-mapping: r=-0,169; p=0,026). Examining the differences between sexes we found that female athletes respond slightly less to a unit of exercise compared to males. Our findings underscore that different training hours and invested years have a meaningful impact on physiological adaptation. Female athletes’ heart responds slightly less to these effects. But in both sexes, higher training hours resulted in lower T1 and this relationship persisted independent of the influences of age, HR, and LVMi.

Sex Differences Exist in the Relationship Between Vertical Jump Performance Biomechanical Parameters and Hamstring/Quadriceps Ratio in Adolescent U18 Track and Field Athletes

Isokinetic metrics are suggested to be related to vertical jump performance, but little is known about the possible sex differences in this relationship in adolescent track and field athletes. The aim of the study was to examine the possible sex differences in the strength of the relationship between the kinetic parameters of the vertical squat jump with arms akimbo, the countermovement jump with arms akimbo, and the countermovement jump with free arm swing with the isokinetic parameters of the knee extensor and flexor muscles (angular velocities: 60°/s and 300°/s). In total, 35 (males: 21, females: 14) U18 track and field athletes were examined. The results revealed that the Men U18 group had higher vertical jump performance, higher values in the kinetic parameters of the vertical jump tests, higher knee extensor torque, and higher knee flexor torque in the non-dominant leg compared to the Women U18 group. Significant (p &lt; 0.05) sex differences were observed in the relationship between the isokinetic parameters and the vertical jump performance metrics, as the Women U18 athletes relied more on the knee flexor torque than Men U18 athletes, and demonstrated a stronger negative relationship between selected isokinetic metrics and the pre-stretch gain in the vertical jump tests. In conclusion, it is recommended that young female track and field athletes minimize interlimb asymmetry and improve the convention ratio in their non-dominant leg to optimize vertical jump performance.

Unveiling a hide side of the athlete's heart: a CMR focus on the left atrium.

Abstract Background cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is the gold standard to evaluate cardiac chambers’ dimensions and function, but data on left atrium (LA) dimensions and function among elite athletes are lacking. Objective to describe LA size and function among a cohort of elite athletes and evaluate eventual differences based on sports discipline and gender. Methods We enrolled 120 Olympic athletes with un-remarkable cardiovascular pre-participation screening tests (mean age 25±5 years, 50% males, 25% skill, 25% power, 25% mixed, 25% endurance). All the athletes underwent CMR without contrast administration. LA dimensions, in terms of absolute and indexed area and volume, were computed using 4- and 2-chamber steady state precession cine-sequences. LA ejection fraction (LAEF) and LA coupling index (LACI index, as the ratio between LA and LV end-diastolic volumes) were calculated. Cine-images were also used to analyse atrial deformation with a dedicated offline software to measure LA global longitudinal strain. LA dimensions and function were compared between males and females and athletes of different sports categories based on European classification. Results Among the entire cohort, endurance athletes showed the greatest remodelling in terms of LA and LV dimensions (Table). There were no significant differences in LAEF and LV-EF between athletes of different sport categories (p=0.121 and p=0.679). A trend in increasing LA volumes and decreasing LA strain consistent with a growing cardiovascular demand was observed, but the only statistically significant difference was between skill athletes and all the other groups for LA volumes (p&amp;lt;0.001), while there were no significant differences in LA strain (p=0.170). LACI did not differ between athletes of different sports categories (p=0.170). Female athletes showed higher LAEF and LA strain than males (respectively 55±5 vs 52±6% p=0.012 and 35±7 vs 32±7%, p=0.009) while LACI did not differ based on gender (19±5% for both females and males, p=0.385). Conclusion Among our cohort of Olympics, LA remodelling was observed in all athletes, being less evident in skill group, as for the LV. Thus, the ratio between LA and LV did not differ between sport categories. LAEF and LA strain were not significantly different between athletes of different sports categories although LA strain was slightly lower in endurance. Female athletes showed higher LAEF and LA strain than males, while LACI was not different based on gender.

An online workshop to raise awareness of pelvic floor in track and field female athletes: a quasi-experimental study.

Track and field is a high-impact sport that may facilitate pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) of females. Although increasing the information may reduce deleterious habits, the traditional workshops to date did not motivate and engage the female athletes. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of an online educational workshop about pelvic floor awareness on knowledge and habits of track and field female athletes. A total of 49 track and field athletes participated in this quasi-experimental study: 38 attended an educational workshop and 11 did not. The workshop included innovative resources, such as 3D anatomic models, practical proprioceptive exercises guided by physiotherapists, and an anonymous questions and answers section. Before and 1month later, all the athletes fulfilled an anonymous questionnaire to assess their knowledge about urinary incontinence (UI), ano-rectal incontinence (ARI), pelvic organ prolapse (POP) and female sexual dysfunction (FSD), as well as toileting and sports habits. After attending the workshop, athletes obtained higher scores in knowledge about ARI (p = 0.019), POP (p < 0.001), and FSD (p = 0.018) compared to baseline and athletes who did not attend it. No improvements were observed in habits and knowledge about UI (p > 0.05). The athletes who reached 70% of correct responses about POP had greater number of healthy habits than the rest of the athletes. An innovative educational workshop about pelvic floor increases knowledge of track and field female athletes but is insufficient to modify their habits. Sports and health professionals should design educational strategies to manage the most unknown topics about pelvic floor care, considering that the proposed methodology and innovative resources are effective to increase knowledge.

The acute effect of verbal instructions on performance and landing when dropping from different heights: the ground reaction force-time profile of drop vertical jumps in female volleyball athletes

The acute effect of verbal instructions on performance and landing when dropping from different heights: the ground reaction force-time profile of drop vertical jumps in female volleyball athletes

Rapid Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for Determination of Total and Free Testosterone in Human Serum and Its Application to Monitoring Biomarker Response of Elite Athletes

Total testosterone (TT) and free testosterone (FT) are important biochemical markers for anabolism of the human body, and can also serve as early screening indicators for overtraining syndrome (OTS). Presently, there is no fast and reliable serum TT and FT determination method in the field of sport science that can meet the requirements of sports research. Thus, a rapid and accurate determination method for serum TT and FT to fill the gap is needed urgently in sports training. Herein, a simple and reliable liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous determination of TT and FT in serum was developed and fully validated, followed by the application of professional athletes in training monitoring. Efficient pretreatments based on only one-step liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) for TT and one-step LLE after a 20 min ultrafiltration for FT were adopted in this study, and the isotope internal standard of testosterone-13C3 was used to ensure the reliability of the whole procedure. A linear range of four orders of magnitude with 0.02–100 ng/mL can meet the concentration range requirement between a higher limit for male TT and a lower limit for female FT. The accuracy, precision, stability, and matrix effect were all within the limits of the guidelines. The serum TT and FT levels of 200 professional athletes (98 male athletes and 102 female athletes) were investigated by this method. Serum TT, FT, and FT/TT levels of professional athletes were significantly higher than the general population, and serum TT levels were significantly higher by LC-MS/MS than by a chemiluminescence immunoassay. In conclusion, the LC-MS/MS method for TT and FT measurement developed in this study is time-saving and easy to operate, which can be used as a reliable method for the determination of serum TT and FT in sports training, offering valuable information for monitoring anabolism of athletes and screening OTS in the early stage.

Diagnostic effectiveness of the Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1 supplemented with a brief clinical intake interview in a cohort of Polish elite Olympic athletes

ObjectiveSeveral studies have used the Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1 (SMHAT-1) among athletes but none have combined SMHAT-1 with a subsequent clinical intake interview. The aim of this study...

Effectiveness of Injury Prevention Program Using a Global Systems Approach on High-Risk Movement Mechanics for Noncontact ACL Injury.

Injury prevention training using a global systems approach was designed to develop integrated trunk-lower extremity neuromuscular control using whole-body, rotational forces about the vertical Z-axis during simulated sports movements. Compared with traditional hip-focused exercises, injury prevention training using a global systems approach could improve kinetic and kinematic measures related to anterior cruciate ligament injury. Controlled laboratory study. Level 3. A total of 39 male and female athletes received 6 weeks of either global systems approach (n = 20), or hip-focused strengthening, balance, and plyometrics training (n = 19) exercises. Before and after the training program, participants performed a single-leg vertical drop jump task on their dominant leg. Peak vertical ground-reaction forces (GRFs), peak knee abduction, internal rotation moments, peak hip flexion, hip adduction, knee flexion, knee abduction, contralateral pelvic drop, and lateral trunk flexion angles were assessed. Biomechanical data were compared between the 2 groups using a random-intercept linear mixed-models analysis. A significant group × time interaction effect was found for vertical GRFs (P = 0.01; change difference relative to baseline: 4.5%), knee abduction moment (P = 0.01; 14.8%), hip adduction (P < 0.01; 16.7%), knee abduction (P < 0.01; 13.8%), contralateral pelvic drop (P < 0.01; change difference: 26.6%), and lateral trunk flexion (P = 0.04; 20.37%) angles, favoring the global systems approach group after 6 weeks of training. Participants who trained using the global systems approach had significantly decreased lateral trunk flexion, hip adduction, knee abduction and contralateral pelvic drop angles, peak vertical GRFs, and peak knee abduction moment during a single-leg vertical drop jump compared with participants who trained with hip-focused exercises. Incorporating additional external resistance at the proximal trunk results in improved biomechanics compared with conventional hip-focused exercises.

Wingate anaerobic test as a potential predictor of 500-m time in short track speed skating

ABSTRACT Short-Track Speed Skating (STSS) is an Olympic discipline in which anaerobic performance plays a central role. An established assessment tool for anaerobic performance in STSS athletes is the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT). The aim of this study was to investigate whether WAnT could be used as a predictor of sport-specific performance in the STSS 500-m races. Data from 72 German national STSS athletes (33 female, 39 male) were analysed retrospectively. The statistical analyses included descriptive procedures as well as linear mixed-model analyses. The results showed significant correlations between WAnT outcomes and 500 -m performance of STSS athletes. In male athletes, the coefficients were −0.40 for relative Mean Power (rMP) and −0.32 for relative Peak Power (rPP) (p < 0.001). For female athletes, the rMP showed no significant correlation whereas rPP was significantly correlated with a coefficient of −0.41 (p < 0.001). Marginal R2 values ranged between 0% and 12%. Conditional R2 reached up to 76% depending on sex and WAnT parameter investigated. In conclusion while WAnT can be regarded as a potential predictor of time in 500-m STSS races, it should be used in conjunction with other performance metrics and individualized assessments to better predict performance.

TMG Symmetry and Kinematic Analysis of the Impact of Different Plyometric Programs on Female Athletes’ Lower-Body Muscles

Asymmetries in sports are common and can lead to various issues; however, different training programs can facilitate change. This study aimed to assess the effects of opposing plyometric programs on tensiomyography lateral symmetry (TMG LS)/inter-limb asymmetry in female athletes’ lower-body muscles, alongside kinematic and body composition parameters. Twenty female subjects from basketball, volleyball, and track and field (sprinting disciplines) were divided into two experimental groups (n = 10 each). Two six-week plyometric programs (two sessions/week) were implemented: the first program (E1) focused on eccentric exercises, depth landings, while the second (E2) emphasized concentric exercises, squat jumps. TMG assessed LS in six muscles: vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, gastrocnemius lateralis, and gastrocnemius medialis. A kinematic analysis of the countermovement jump (CMJ) and body composition was conducted using “Kinovea; Version 0.9.4” software and InBody 770, respectively. The results showed significant increases in LS percentages (E1—VL 9.9%, BF 18.0%, GM 10.6% and E2—BF 22.5%, p &lt; 0.05), and a significant large effect in E1 for VL, and in E2 for BF, p &lt; 0.01). They also showed that E1 had a significant effect on VL, and that E2 had a significant large effect on BF (p &lt; 0.01). E1 also led to increased lean muscle mass in both legs (left: 1.88%, right: 2.74%) and decreased BMIs (−0.4, p &lt; 0.05). Both programs improved LS, with E1 enhancing muscle mass and lower-body positioning in CMJ. We recommend future studies use varied jump tests, incorporate 3D kinematic analysis, include male subjects, and examine more muscles to enhance TMG LS analysis.

Sportomics Analyses of the Exercise-Induced Impact on Amino Acid Metabolism and Acute-Phase Protein Kinetics in Female Olympic Athletes

Background: Exercise can be used as a model to understand immunometabolism. Biological data on elite athletes are limited, especially for female athletes, including relevant data on acute-phase proteins and amino acid metabolism. Methods: We analyzed acute-phase proteins and amino acids collected at South American, Pan-American, and Olympic Games for 16 Olympic sports. We compared female and male elite athletes (447 vs. 990 samples) across four states (fasting, pre-exercise, post-exercise, and resting) to understand sex-specific immunometabolic responses in elite athletes. Results: Considering all states and sports, we found that elite female athletes exhibited higher concentrations of C-reactive protein, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, myeloperoxidase, haptoglobin, and IGF1, with ratios ranging from 1.2 to 2.0 (p &lt; 0.001). Women exhibited lower concentrations of most amino acids, except for glutamate and alanine. Although almost 30% lower in women, branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) showed a similar pattern in all states (ρ ≥ 0.9; p &lt; 0.001), while aromatic amino acids (AAAs) showed higher consumption during exercise in women. Conclusion: We established sex dimorphism in elite athletes’ metabolic and inflammatory responses during training and competition. Our data suggest that female athletes present a lower amino acid response towards central fatigue development than male athletes. Understanding these differences can lead to insights into sex-related immuno-metabolic responses in sports or other inflammatory conditions.

Triad of female athletes

The female sports triad is a spectrum of dysfunctions related to energy availability, menstrual function, and bone mineral density. Energy availability is considered the trigger for the triad. Scientists have proven that women who do sports consume approximately 30% less energy and carbohydrates in relation to their body weight. Sufficient energy availability ensures the presence of a menstrual cycle, directly affects the stimulation of the production of female sex hormones (estrogen in particular). Thus, it prevents resorption of bone tissue. When energy availability is too low, a physiological mechanism reduces the amount of energy used for cell maintenance, thermoregulation, growth, and reproductive function. This compensation tends to restore energy balance and promotes survival, but impairs health. Low body weight in women of reproductive age, particularly in adolescence and the first reproductive age, is a biological marker of somatic and reproductive dysfunction. Osteoporosis in young female athletes is manifested by fractures unusual for young women or by frequent and multiple bone fractures during an athletic career. In this review article, an analytical review of literary and informational sources regarding the history of research on the problem of the triad of female athletes is carried out. The specifics of the negative impact of the athlete triad on the female body, the components of the athlete triad (amenorrhea, eating disorders, and osteoporosis) are examined in detail. The article focuses on its main cause - energy imbalance. The impact of the triad of female athletes on the psyche and behavior is considered. The question of its consequences for health both in the short-term and in the long-term perspective is considered. The prevention of RED-S syndrome was also investigated. The purpose of the study: Systematization of current knowledge about the triad of female athletes (relative energy deficiency syndrome (RED-S)). Research methods. Theoretical analysis of literary sources, systematization, generalization of scientific-methodical and special literature.

Beyond the Finish Line: Muscle Injuries in Athletic Competition

Objectives. The study aimed to compare the incidence of muscle injuries in the qualifying rounds, semifinals and finals in athletics. Materials and Methods. A total of 14 male and 12 female athletes who participated in all rounds (preliminaries, semifinals, and finals) of the 100 m, 200 m, and 400 m matches were analyzed over a 4-year period starting in 2021-2024. The female athletes were aged 22.4 ± 3.81 years, with a mean height of 167 ± 8.6 cm, and weight — 64.6 ± 17.5 kg. The male athletes were aged 23.4 ± 3.82, having an average height of 169 ± 8.3 cm, and weight — 66.4 ± 15.8 kg. A t-test was used to conduct comparative assessment of performance between finals, semifinals, and preliminaries for each gender and event. A 95% confidence interval was calculated separately for each gender, event, and round. Additionally, incidence rates were compared. The significance level was accepted at p &lt; 0.05. Results. HMI (hamstring muscle injuries) incidence rate for female qualifiers was found to be 1.50 (1.05-1.95), semifinals — 1.33 (0.79-1.88), and the final — 1.91 (1.44-2.38). LLMI (lower limb muscle injuries) incidence rate among female qualifiers was 1.50 (0.58-2.42), semifinals — 1.00 (1.00-1.00), and the final — 1.55 (1.36-1.74). HMI incidence rate in male qualifiers was 0.50 (0.08-1.28), semifinals — 0.67 (0.77-2.10), and 1.00 (0.34-1.66) in the final. LLMI incidence rate for male qualifiers was 0.40 (0.28-1.08), semifinals — 0.24 (0.55-1.05), and the final revealed 0.60 (0.08-1.28). Conclusions. The highest incidence of muscle injury in all forms among men was observed in the all-round category. In women, hamstring muscle injuries occurred in the final, while lower limb muscle injuries were most prevalent in the preliminaries and semifinals.