Feed Crops Research Articles

Lower pork consumption and technological change in feed production can reduce the pork supply chain environmental footprint in China.

Nearly half of global pork production and consumption occurs in China, but the transition towards intensification is associated with worsening environmental impacts. Here we explore scenarios for implementing structural and technological changes across the pork supply chain to improve environmental sustainability and meet future demand. Following the middle-of-the-road socio-economic pathway (SSP2), we estimate that the environmental footprint from the pork supply chain will increase by ~50% from 2017 to 2050. Utilizing technologies that improve feed crop production and manure management could reduce phosphorus and nitrogen losses by three-quarters and one-third, respectively, with modest reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and cropland area. Reducing pork consumption had substantial mitigation potential. Increased feed and pork imports would decrease domestic environmental footprints and meet demand, but increase footprints elsewhere. We conclude that farm-specific technologies and structural adjustments can support the development of rural, small-scale pig farms near cropland and promote circular economy principles.

ANTHRACNOSE RESISTANCE GENE2 confers fungal resistance in sorghum.

Sorghum is an important food and feed crop globally; its production is hampered by anthracnose disease caused by the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum sublineola (Cs). Here, we report identification and characterization of ANTHRACNOSE RESISTANCE GENE 2 (ARG2) encoding a nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) protein that confers race-specific resistance to Cs strains. ARG2 is one of a cluster of several NLR genes initially identified in the sorghum differential line SC328C that is resistant to some Cs strains. This cluster shows structural and copy number variations in different sorghum genotypes. Different sorghum lines carrying independent ARG2 alleles provided the genetic validation for the identity of the ARG2 gene. ARG2 expression is induced by Cs, and chitin induces ARG2 expression in resistant but not in susceptible lines. ARG2-mediated resistance is accompanied by higher expression of defense and secondary metabolite genes at early stages of infection, and anthocyanin and zeatin metabolisms are upregulated in resistant plants. Interestingly, ARG2 localizes to the plasma membrane when transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. Importantly, ARG2 plants produced higher shoot dry matter than near-isogenic lines carrying the susceptible allele suggesting an absence of an ARG2 associated growth trade-off. Furthermore, ARG2-mediated resistance is stable at a wide range of temperatures. Our observations open avenues for resistance breeding and for dissecting mechanisms of resistance.

Efficiency of Modern Feed Crop Crusher Application

The results of agrotechnical and economic assessments of the use of crushers for grinding feed crops are presented. A comparative analysis of five samples of modern domestic-made crushers was carried out in terms of resource saving indicators. The most effective of them are revealed.

Breeding and Deploying Multiple Stress-Tolerant Maize Varieties in the Tropics

Maize is the key crop for food, feed, and nutritional security of millions of smallholder farmers and consumers in the developing world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Asia, and Latin America. CIMMYT and partners have adopted innovative approaches over the last one decade to develop, evaluate, and deliver elite stress-resilient and nutritionally enriched maize varieties with relevant client-preferred traits, especially in the stress-prone tropics. Effective integration of modern breeding tools and strategies, including high-throughput and precision phenotyping, doubled haploid (DH) technology, and genomics-assisted breeding, are integral part of these efforts leading to impressive genetic gains, while enhancing the pace, precision, and efficiency of breeding pipelines. Through extensive public-private partnerships, CGIAR-derived climate-resilient and multiple stress-tolerant improved maize varieties are being deployed in over 13 countries in SSA, four countries in South Asia, and several countries across Latin America. Certified seed production of CGIAR-derived improved stress-tolerant maize varieties was estimated to cover approximately 7.2 million hectares in SSA in 2022, reaching an estimated 7.2 million households, and benefitting 44 million people. In the past five years, a total 20 high-yielding drought and heat stress-tolerant maize hybrids were released in South Asia, including four new hybrids in 2022 – BWMRI-2 in Bangladesh; Rampur Hybrid-12 in Nepal; and IMH-222 and IMH-223 in India. In collaboration with seed company partners, certified seed production of climate-resilient maize hybrids scaled-up from a baseline of just 70 MT in 2018-19 to 1026 MT in 2021-22, and deployed in about 50,000 hectares in various stress-vulnerable targeted ecologies in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan, reaching 128,200 farm families. Experiences of CIMMYT strongly indicate that besides strengthening the seed sector, adoption of progressive seed laws and regulations, are vital for improving smallholder farmers’ access to climate-resilient improved seed. Policy support and institutional innovations are also required for overcoming key bottlenecks affecting maize seed value chain.

The impact of agricultural intensification on carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption: A comparative study of developing and developed nations

Energy consumption has become a necessity in today’s world, and economies in developing nations cannot thrive without it. Countries with less developed economies face the same challenges of achieving sustained economic growth as those with more advanced economies. Herein, we examine the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis by looking at the interplay between GDP growth, energy use, agricultural output, and the effects of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. From 1991 to 2016, we used panel and quantile regression analyses to compare emissions in nine developing countries with those in 13 developed countries. There is the beginning of a reverse U-shaped relationship between agricultural energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, the verified EKC hypothesis paves the way for a watershed moment in the progress of industrialized nations’ economies. The estimated results of agriculture have a favorable impact on CO2 emissions by 15.16 percent but a negative influence of 2.92 percent on CO2 emissions from using liquid fuels, leading to more severe environmental deterioration. Additionally, in developing countries, feed cropping, deforestation, biomass burning, and deep soil and cropping all have detrimental consequences on the ecosystem. There is a negative correlation between CO2 emissions and economic growth in developing countries and their energy consumption. Although the EKC hypothesis for CO2 emissions was rejected at lower quantiles, it was validated for Qatar, Canada, China, and other high-emitting economies according to the empirical estimation of quantile regression. The findings of this study have important policy implications for reducing carbon dioxide emissions, suggesting that policymakers account for the stage of economic growth currently being experienced when formulating measures to cut energy use and protect the environment. Possible solutions to mitigate environmental degradation include enactment of policies to reduce energy consumption.

Analysis of Factors Influencing the Decision-Making Behavior of Beef Cattle Farmers: An Empirical Analysis Based on Logit-ISM Model.

The beef cattle industry is an important part of herbivorous animal husbandry and an important industry to enrich the dietary structure of residents and promote the income of farmers and herdsmen. The cow is an important foundation to support the healthy development of the beef cattle industry, which is related to the stability of cattle sources and the sustainable development of the industry. However, in recent years, the shortage of cows in our country has led to the shortage of cattle resources and the high price of calves, which has restricted the further development of our beef cattle industry. In order to explore the factors that affect the decision-making behavior behind cow breeding and to find the right policy to mobilize the enthusiasm for cow breeding, based on the field survey of five provinces (cities and regions), including Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, this paper conducts an empirical analysis through the Logit ISM model. The results show that market expectation is the surface factor that directly affects the decision-making behavior of cow breeding. The influencing factors of the middle layer are policy propaganda, policy subsidies, breeding years, and feeding methods. The deep root factors are the age of the breeder, the amount of loan, and whether to plant feed crops. Based on this, this paper proposes that we should actively promote the importance of cow breeding, strengthen policy support for cow breeding, formulate scientific and reasonable subsidy policies for cows, innovate financial support methods to solve the problem of fund shortage of farmers, and develop forage resources and reduce the breeding cost of cows.

Savings in fertilizer requirements from plant-based diets

This paper compares fertilizer requirements for vegan and omnivore diets. Mass balance models are established and used to estimate that amount of fertilizer required to supply one unit of a nutrient from plants and from animal food products (AFPs). Two critical parameters are the nutrient inverse feed efficiency (IFE, the ratio of nutrient content of animal feeds to the nutrient content of animal food products, varying from 2.5-450) and the fraction of nutrients in animal manure that is recycled into new feed crops (faw-crop), varying from 0.15-0.70. For an AFP share of 20%, fertilizer requirements vary from 1.0-14 times that of a vegan diet as IFE increases from 2.5 to 250 with faw-crop=0.70, from 1.1-29 times that of a vegan diet for faw-crop=0.35. Thus, shifting from animal to plant sources of protein can substantially reduce fertilizer requirements, even with maximal use of animal manure. This paper adds a new and important dimension to the ongoing efforts, motivated by climate and health concerns, to transition more fully to plant-based diets.

Effects of Different Soybean and Maize Mixed Proportions in a Strip Intercropping System on Silage Fermentation Quality

Soybean (Glycine max Merr.), with a high nutritional value, is an important oil crop and a good protein feed crop. Due to the shortage of high-protein feed and the high import pressure on soybean, scarce high-protein feed is the main research target for improving feed quality. High-quality soybean (Qihuang 34) and high-yield silage maize (Zea mays L.) (Jingling silage 386) varieties were used as the experimental materials in this study. The silage quality and the microbial community of the mixed silage of soybean and maize were analyzed, and the compatible intercropping ratios of maize–soybean mixed silage were evaluated. This experiment designed five strip intercropping systems (SIS) in a randomized block. The intercropping row ratios of maize and soybean were 0:1 (pure soybean, S), 1:0 (pure maize, M), 1:1 (MS1), 1:3 (MS2), and 1:5 (MS3). Dry matter yield and fresh matter yield were improved in the treatments of MS1 and MS2. In the mixed silage systems of maize and soybean, with an increase in soybean proportion, crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF) contents gradually increased, but the contents of water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) and dry matter (DM) reduced to different degrees (p < 0.05). Moreover, the soybean silage alone had a poor fermentation performance, as indicated by high pH, high acetic acid (AA), propionic acid (PA), butyric acid (BA), and ammonia-N (NH3-N) concentrations, and low lactic acid (LA) concentration. By contrast, the mixed silage materials were conducive to reducing the pH, PA, BA, and NH3-N, and increasing the LA content. The relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Weissella in the MS were higher, and the abundance of undesirable bacteria were lower than in the S. The MS2 materials had the lowest pH, the highest LA concentration, and the highest relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Weissella among the three mixed silage groups. Therefore, the mixed silage in the SIS modified the microbial communities and improved the feed fermentation quality while increasing yields. The better intercropping ratio of maize–soybean mixed silage was 1:3. These results could provide a theoretical basis for the wide application and popularization of soybean as a high-protein silage forage source.

Screening of effective microscopic fungi that contribute to the improvement of plant growth and development

Modern technologies used in agriculture are mainly based on the use of chemical plant protection products, which inevitably leads to contamination of manufactured products and the environment. In this regard, the development and application of environmentally safe biological products based on the use of microorganisms that improve the growth and development of plants is an urgent task of modern crop production.Currently, microorganisms with a set of beneficial properties for plants are commonly referred to as PGPM (from Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms – microorganisms that promote plant growth). Studies of this promising group of microorganisms for practical use are of great interest. Among the PGPs of various taxonomic groups, a wide range of useful properties for plants are distinguished by micromycetes. They are potential objects of agrobiotechnology for the development of biological plant protection products against phytopathogens, as well as biological products that stimulate growth and increase plant productivity.The article presents data on the selection of strains of micromycetes isolated from agrocenoses of grain and feed crops of Kazakhstan that improve plant growth and have the ability to increase the availability of nutrients for them. Because of the screening, out of 44 strains, 2 were selected that showed the greatest activity and had several valuable properties at once.The selected effective micromycetes had a positive effect on the physiological processes of plants (morphometric parameters and photosynthesis), as well as increased the availability of nutrients (phosphorus and potassium). Key words: potassium solubilization, micromycetes, growth-stimulating activity, phosphatmobilization.

Functional analysis of a late embryogenesis abundant protein ZmNHL1 in maize under drought stress

Maize is an important feed and industrial cereal crop and is crucial for global food security. The development of drought-tolerant genotypes is a major aim of breeding programs to fight water scarcity and maintain sustainable maize production. Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins are a family of proteins related to osmotic regulation that widely exist in organisms. Here, we implemented a previously generated maize transcriptomic dataset to identify a drought-responsive gene designated ZmNHL1. Bioinformatics analysis of ZmNHL1 showed that the protein encoded by ZmNHL1 belongs to the LEA-2 protein family. Tissue specific expression analysis showed that ZmNHL1 is relatively abundant in stems and leaves, highly expressed in tassels and only slightly expressed in roots, pollens and ears. Moreover, the activity of SOD and POD of plants from three 35S::ZmNHL1 transgenic lines under either the induced drought stress conditions (by 20% PEG6000) or the natural water deficit treatment (by water withholding) were higher than that of the WT plants, while the electrolyte leakage of the 35S::ZmNHL1 transgenic plants was lower than that of the WT plants under both drought treatments. Our data further revealed that ZmNHL1 promotes maize tolerance to drought stress in 35S::ZmNHL1 transgenic plants by improving ROS scavenging and maintaining the cell membrane permeability. Overall, our data revealed that ZmNHL1 promotes maize tolerance to drought stress and contributes to provide elite germplasm resources for maize drought tolerance breeding programs.

Bt maize can provide non-chemical pest control and enhance food safety in China.

China is the world's second-largest maize producer and consumer. In recent years, the invasive fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) has adversely affected maize productivity and compromised food security. To mitigate pest-inflicted food shortages, China's Government issued biosafety certificates for two genetically modified (GM) Bt maize hybrids, Bt-Cry1Ab DBN9936 and Bt-Cry1Ab/Cry2Aj Ruifeng 125, in 2019. Here, we quantitatively assess the impact of both Bt maize hybrids on pest feeding damage, crop yield and food safety throughout China's maize belt. Without a need to resort to synthetic insecticides, Bt maize could mitigate lepidopteran pest pressure by 61.9-97.3%, avoid yield loss by 16.4-21.3% (range -11.9-99.2%) and lower mycotoxin contamination by 85.5-95.5% as compared to the prevailing non-Bt hybrids. Yield loss avoidance varied considerably between experimental sites and years, as mediated by on-site infestation pressure and pest identity. For either seed mixtures or block refuge arrangements, pest pressure was kept below established thresholds at 90% Bt maize coverage in Yunnan (where S. frugiperda was the dominant species) and 70% Bt maize coverage in other sites dominated by Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) and Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée). Drawing on experiences from other crop/pest systems, Bt maize in se can provide area-wide pest management and thus, contribute to a progressive phase-down of chemical pesticide use. Hence, when consciously paired with agroecological and biodiversity-based measures, GM insecticidal crops can ensure food and nutrition security, contribute to the sustainable intensification of China's agriculture and reduce food systems' environmental footprint.

Results of sainfoin breeding in the Stavropol Territory

Modern Agricultural production is characterized by an increased need for specialized, highly productive, complementary varieties of feed crops adapted to specific natural and climatic conditions, grown using various technologies, for certain groups of animals. Among the perennial legumes in the south of Russia, sainfoin is in special demand. The purpose of the current study was to estimate the variety samples of various types of sainfoin and a new variety of Transcaucasian sainfoin ‘Kravtsov’ according to the main economically valuable traits and properties when used for feed and seeds. The study was carried out in the zone of unstable moisture in the Stavropol Territory. The soil of the experimental field was represented by low-humus micellar-carbonate medium loamy chernozem, with 3.2 % humus, 12 mg/kg phosphorus and 260 mg/kg potassium in the arable layer. The prevailing weather conditions during the research period made it possible to give a comprehensive estimation of the studied material. According to the results of Competitive Variety Testing, a variety sample of Transcaucasian sainfoin was selected from the studied three types of the crop, which, due to the results of the State Variety Testing in 2021, was included in the State List of Breeding Achievements of the Russian Federation with permission to use in all regions of the country. A new variety of Transcaucasian sainfoin ‘Kravtsov’ has a complex of such economically valuable traits as intensive spring and post-harvest regrowth, high foliage (42–45 % in the first cut, 52–57 % in the second cut), and resistance to unfavorable environmental factors. The plant height in the budding phase was 110–115 cm, which exceeded standard plants’ height by 10–15 %. The variety is highly resistant to drought and lodging, tolerant to diseases and pests. The variety is highly productive with 33.8 t/ha of green mass, 9.7 t/ha of hay and 1.1 t/ha of seeds. There is 17% crude protein in dry matter. 1000-seed weight is 23–25 g.

The influence of biological techniques in the feed crop rotation link on soil productivity and fertility

Relevance. New fertilizers Azotovite and Phosphatovite do not pollute the soil and provide significant savings when applying in combination with traditional fertilizers. Studies on the use of Azotovite and Phosphatovite in the conditions of the Novgorod region on sod-podzolic soil in improved fodder crop rotations have not yetbeen conducted, therefore research on the influence of Azotovite and Phosphatovite together with mineral fertilizers in improved crop rotations is relevant.Methods. The results of studies of two-factor field experiment, carried out in 2019–2021 on sod-podzolic soil in the conditions of the Novgorod region, are presented to study the influence on the yield and nutritional value of forage cropsof three methods of using Azotovite (A) and Phosphatovite (P) — factor H— and mineral fertilizers in full dosagesfor a programmed yield (background 1) andin dosages, reduced by 50% (background 2) (factor B) in the feed crop rotation link: spring rapeseed for siderate; winter rye and spring barley for grain. The use of crop-root residues, siderates and grain straw serves as a basis for increasing soil fertility.Results. It was established that the introduction of a complete mineral fertilizer based on the planned harvest, the double use of Azotovite and Phosphatovite in technological operations— etching of seed material (by 2 l/t of each preparation) and non-root spraying of plants in the period up to 30 cm (by 1 l/ha of each preparation) —provided high productivity of siderate (38.2 t/ha),grain of winter rye (7.1 t/ha) and spring barley (4.1 t/ha); digestible proteinin amount 0.65 and 0.34 t/ha was obtained, low energy intensity of grain production (less than 3.0 GJ/t) is combined with high energy efficiency of production — 5.8 units. The use of siderate and grain straw as organic fertilizers allowed to increase soil fertility on average per crop rotation link for all variants of the experiment by more than 47 GJ/ha.

Development towards low carbon and sustainable agriculture in Finland is possible with moderate changes in land use and diets

Food security under climate change, several sustainability problems, and ambitious climate targets are considered challenges for agriculture and food sectors in many countries. Since agricultural production and its land use produce appr. 20% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of Finland, reducing agricultural GHG emissions is important for meeting national target of climate neutrality by 2035. Healthier food diets, maintenance of biodiversity, and reduced nutrient leaching from agriculture are also required for a more sustainable food economy. This paper aims to show how agriculture in Finland, traditionally dominated by livestock production, could decrease GHG emissions significantly and simultaneously respond to other sustainability concerns. Our results, based on economic modelling of the agricultural sector, suggest that moderate changes in food diets and land use can reduce GHG emissions of agriculture by more than 40% by 2050 if productivity growth and policy changes support the overall change in the agriculture and food sector. Adaptation to climate change, e.g. more higher crop yields efficient input use, is necessary for productivity growth. Decreased demand for meat and decreased cultivation of feed crops would decrease GHG emissions and free up land for carbon sequestration through afforestation. Whilst healthier food diets imply less livestock and increased imports of protein crops for food, a reasonable volume of livestock production is useful for maintaining food security, grasslands, crop rotations, soil carbon, and biodiversity. We conclude that transition to low carbon and more sustainable agriculture is possible without risking food security at northern latitudes.

Framework for defining pesticide maximum residue levels in feed: applications to cattle and sheep.

Pesticide residues in animal feed can endanger animal health and compromise the safety of livestock products for human consumption. Even though policymakers such as the European Union and the World Health Organization have established maximum residue levels (MRLs) for pesticides in both human food and animal feed, there is no systematic management of pesticides in animal feed that considers the entire supply chain. In response, we propose a framework for defining consistent MRLs for pesticides in animal feed that assesses the impact of defined MRLs on upstream (e.g., MRLs in feed crops) and downstream (e.g., MRLs in livestock products) sectors of the livestock-product supply chain. The MRLs determined for the selected pesticides in the feed of cattle and sheep as case study animals indicate that lipophilic pesticides tend to have lower MRLs than hydrophilic pesticides, primarily due to the relatively high toxicity and biotransfer factors of lipophilic pesticides. In addition, we observe that, primarily for lipophilic pesticides, upstream and downstream regulations are not aligned in terms of defining MRLs in feed using current MRLs in crops with relevance to feed and foods of animal origin. Some of the current pesticide regulations in the livestock-product supply chain need to be re-evaluated to ensure that MRLs in the upstream sector (i.e., crops) do not result in unacceptable residues in the downstream sector (i.e., MRLs in livestock products affecting animal and human health). Finally, we provide recommendations for optimizing the derivation of MRLs in feed, including the evaluation of residue fate during feed and food manufacturing processes. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Atmospheric deposition of particulate matter from beef cattle feedlots is a likely contributor of pyrethroid occurrence in isolated wetland sediment: Source apportionment and ecological risk assessment

Industrial cattle feeding operations (feedlots) have been subject to public scrutiny in recent decades regarding environmental impacts of site runoff and aerial dispersion of agrochemical-laden particulate matter (PM). However, source apportionment of multi-use pesticides is challenging in mixed agricultural settings. Beef cattle on feed and row crop production are heavily concentrated in the Southern Great Plains of North America, where playa wetlands are vulnerable to agrochemical inputs and sedimentation from surrounding land use. In the current study, playa basin sediment (n = 33) was analyzed via UHPLC-MS for 21 agrochemicals spanning eight classes (macrocyclic lactones, neonicotinoids, organophosphates, pyrethroids, triazoles, β-methoxyacrylates, a carboximide, and phenylpyrazole). Pyrethroids were detected most frequently (75.8% of basins). Sediment pyrethroid concentrations were also significantly correlated (R2 = 0.178, p = 0.007) with feedlot proximity (<1–50 km). Principal component analysis (PCA) of land use metrics extracted three principal components (74.3% of total variance), with principal component regression (PCR) showing the greatest agrochemical occurrence in basins heavily weighted by cropland buffer acreage (≤1 km) and feedlot proximity. Sediment toxicity benchmarks protective of two benthic invertebrates (Hyallela azteca and Chironomus spp.) identified λ-cyhalothrin, fenvalerate, and esfenvalerate as individual compounds exceeding levels of acute (RQ > 0.5) and chronic (RQ > 1) concern in >5% and >50% of cases, respectively. However, additive toxicity of co-occurring pyrethroids represents an acute high risk (RI > 1; median RI; acute = 2.4, chronic = 38.6) to benthic invertebrates in >75% of cases, which may threaten higher-order wetland taxa via bioaccumulation and trophic transfer.

Spatiotemporal patterns of PFAS in water and crop tissue at a beneficial wastewater reuse site in central Pennsylvania.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a collective name for thousands of synthetic compounds produced to enhance consumer and industrial products since the 1940s. They do not easily degrade, and some are known to pose serious ecological and human health concerns at trace concentrations (ng L-1 levels). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances persist in treated wastewater and are inadvertently introduced into the environment when treated wastewater is reused as an irrigation source. The Pennsylvania State University (PSU) has been spray-irrigating its wastewater at a 2.45 km2 mixed-use agricultural and forested site known as the "Living Filter" since the 1960s. To understand the spatiotemporal patterns of 20 PFAS at the Living Filter, water samples were collected bimonthly from fall 2019 through winter 2021 from the PSU's wastewater effluent and from each of the site's 13 monitoring wells. Crop tissue was collected at the time of harvest to assess PFAS presence in corn silage and tall fescue grown at the study site. Total measured PFAS concentrations in the monitoring wells ranged from nondectable to 155ng L-1 , with concentrations increasing with the direction of groundwater flow. Concentrations within each well exhibited little temporal variability across sampling events, with mixed relationships between PFAS and groundwater elevation observed between wells. Further, >84% of the PFAS present in livestock feed crops were short-chain compounds, with PFAS consumed annually by livestock fed crops harvested from the site estimated to be 2.46-7.67mg animal-1 yr-1 . This research provides insight into the potential impacts of long-term beneficial reuse of treated wastewater on groundwater and crop tissue quality.

Recent weather extremes and their impact on crop yields of the Netherlands

We assessed impacts of recent weather extremes on yields of major food and feed crops in the Netherlands. Impacts on the arable crops potato, sugar beet, onion and winter wheat were analysed in 12 regions. Impacts on the forage crop yields grass and maize were analysed for 6 regions. This study shows impacts of weather extremes on crop yields, mediated by soil and agricultural management (irrigation, fungicides, etc). We show that two large scale weather extremes had a major impact on crop yields. The 1998 extremely wet harvesting period had a major negative impact on all tuber crops (potato, sugar beet, onion). The 2018 extremely dry summer period had a major negative impact on grass and onion. One region was found to be particularly sensitive to drought, which seems to be related to this province having poor access to irrigation. Much larger negative impact of drought in this one region shows that impact of extremes can be strongly mitigated by agricultural management (irrigation). Therefore, should access to irrigation decline in the future, impact of drought would be larger than reported here. Our analysis contributes to a deeper quantitative understanding of which weather extremes actually affect crop production and subsequently benefits the quest for adaptation options.

Environmental impact assessment of Finnish feed crop production with methodological comparison of PEF and IPCC methods for climate change impact

The impact of livestock production on the environment is already well acknowledged. When non-ruminants are considered, the major contributors to products' environmental impacts are related to feed crop production. Feed crop production sustainability is therefore especially relevant in addressing the sustainability and mitigation potential of non-ruminant production. Here, the climate change impact and water scarcity (WS) impact of the current Finnish feed crop production was assessed. The impact of methodological differences on the climate change impact of national-, regional-, and farm-level feed crop production were investigated for utilising the European Commission's Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) guidance and the guidelines provided by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).Feed crops selected for the assessment were considered as typical for Finnish pork and broiler chicken production, and included wheat (T. aestivum), oat (A. sativa), barley (H. vulgare), turnip rape (B. rapa ssp. oleifera), pea (P. sativum), and faba bean (V. faba). The farmgate climate change impact varied from turnip rape's 1.22 kg CO2 eq./kg to faba bean's 0.37 kg CO2 eq./kg, while cereals resulted in 0.47–0.63 kg CO2 eq./kg, and pea 0.49 kg CO2 eq./kg according to IPCC methods. Similarly, with PEF methods, the results varied from turnip rape's 1.18 kg CO2 eq./kg to 0.31 kg CO2 eq./kg of faba bean, cereals resulted in 0.42–0.58 kg CO2 eq./kg, and pea 0.43 kg CO2 eq./kg. The absolute difference between methods ranged between −0.045 and −0.068 kg CO2 eq./kg. The analysis showed that even if the relative error varied from 3% to 19% between methods, the relative order was the same, independent of the methods. The farmgate WS impact of Finnish feed crops was 0.23 m3 eq./kg for turnip rape, 0.05 m3 eq./kg for faba bean, 0.08 m3 eq./kg for barley, 0.08 m3 eq./kg for oat, 0.09 m3 eq./kg for wheat, and 0.06 m3 eq./kg for pea.It was observed that the PEF and IPCC methods functioned similarly in distinguishing better and worse performing crop production between cases. It was shown that the major contributors to feed crop production in Finland were energy and input production, N2O from N inputs, and peat soil degradation. The amount of N2O emissions from peat soil degradation especially demonstrated high variability and was therefore identified to have high mitigation potential. The investigation demonstrated the importance of including N2O emissions in the widest form when finding production hotspots.

Water footprints and efficiencies of ruminant animals and products in China over 2008–2017

Over half of global livestock-related water consumption is for ruminants. Securing the increasing demand for ruminant products and their nutritional supply worldwide, especially in developing countries with limited and scarce water resources, poses new challenges. However, the evaluations of water appropriation (i.e., water footprints) and efficiencies of ruminant animals and products in time and space within large developing and populous countries remain unclear. Taking three ruminant animals (beef cattle, cows, and mutton sheep) and their meat and milk products produced within the most populous developing country, China, over the period 2008–2017 as the study case, we estimate and analyse provincial water footprints (WFs) by colours as well as their efficiencies from both perspectives of water and nutrients. The results show that the national average unit WFs decreased across species of ruminant. The northern provinces had higher unit WFs of three ruminants than the southern provinces. The WFs of beef were higher than those of the other ruminant animal products. Feed crops contributed 99% of the consumptive WFs of ruminant production in China. The water use efficiency for growing feed crops of the three ruminants increased in most provinces during the study period, which led to decreased proportion of inefficient WF of three animal products. The nutrition conversion efficiency of some animal products is found to overcome the well-known gaps between the WFs for a unit nutrient from animal products versus crops. For example, although the WF of fat per kilogram of mutton was triple of its ingested feed crops, the fat content can increase by six times when the feed crops were converted to mutton. This study reveals the necessity of evaluating the environmental impact of ruminant products from the dual perspectives of resource utilization efficiency and nutrient conversion efficiency, with a feasible evaluation method.