Federal Conservation Research Articles

Associating conservation/production patterns in US farm policy with agricultural land-use in three Iowa, USA townships, 1933–2002

Agricultural policy objectives in developed nations include counteracting overproduction, increasing economic and social well-being, and environmental protection. Such policies, however, often work at cross-purposes. While vast financial resources have been invested in farm programs, little research connects historic trends in agricultural policy with land-use patterns in agricultural landscapes. We connect the legislative history of US farm bills with land-use decisions as observed on the historical agricultural landscape in three townships in Iowa, USA, 1933–2002. With a high proportion of agricultural land, increasing biofuels development, and high participation in federal conservation programs, Iowa presents an ideal case study to explore the relationship between policy and historical land use. Using data from the US Census of Agriculture and historical aerial photography, we conduct our analysis within a framework that identifies alternating eras of US farm policy in terms of legislative focus on conservation vs. production. We describe the impact of US farm policy on the following indicators: maize and soybean area, production, and productivity; hectares in idled land, pasture, and hay ground; and adoption of soil conservation practices. Patterns of agricultural and conservation land use support the idea of alternating conservation–production eras of US farm policy. Three important patterns emerge: (1) despite reductions in maize hectares that correspond with conservation-oriented policy eras, supply management policies have failed to control maize production due to increased productivity; (2) as pasture and hay hectares decline, government set-aside programs are increasingly important for perennial vegetation within agricultural landscapes; and (3) although soil conservation practices have generally increased as agricultural land use has intensified, persistent links between poor environmental quality and farm programs suggest that implementation alone will not achieve environmental quality goals. Environmental improvement likely requires a shift from policies focused on the quantity of commodities produced to policies focused on pattern and process of production in multifunctional agricultural landscapes, and we discuss how policies that promote extensification abroad might inform domestic agricultural policy reform.

Ownership of fishing areas and use of fishing resources by artisanal fishermen in a pond in southern Brazil

The Mangueira Lagoon located in southern Brazil, has its northern portion included in the Taim Ecological Station, a federal conservation unit. The fishing practice is among the activities at this region. It has its own characteristics due to environmental conditions and specific physiography of the area. A field protocol based on geographic information was used to characterize the occupation process and the use of fishing resources. Socio-economic information was collected through interviews of the fishermen and also based on fishing data. After compiling the data a statistical descriptive analyses was completed. The average catch per fisherman in the region is 4,766.5 kg per year. The Loricariichthys anus showed the highest catch volume, ensuring the economic viability of the local activity. The constant increase of the activity may be compromising the reproductive cycle of the local ichthyological fauna, thus compromising the fishery sustainability.

Farmer Participation in U.S. Farm Bill Conservation Programs

Conservation policy in agricultural systems in the United States relies primarily on voluntary action by farmers. Federal conservation programs, including the Environmental Quality Incentives Program, offer incentives, both financial and technical, to farmers in exchange for adoption of conservation practices. Understanding motivations for (as well as barriers to) participation in voluntary programs is important for the design of future policy and effective outreach. While a significant literature has explored motivations and barriers to conservation practice adoption and participation in single programs, few studies in the U.S. context have explored general participation by farmers in one place and time. A mixed-methods research approach was utilized to explore farmer participation in all U.S. Farm Bill programs in Indiana. Current and past program engagement was high, with nearly half of survey respondents reporting participation in at least one program. Most participants had experience with the Conservation Reserve Program, with much lower participation rates in other programs. Most interview participants who had experience in programs were motivated by the environmental benefits of practices, with incentives primarily serving to reduce the financial and technical barriers to practice adoption. The current policy arrangement, which offers multiple policy approaches to conservation, offers farmers with different needs and motivations a menu of options. However, evidence suggests that the complexity of the system may be a barrier that prevents participation by farmers with scarce time or resources. Outreach efforts should focus on increasing awareness of program options, while future policy must balance flexibility of programs with complexity.

Dispatches

Dispatches

Development and validation of the Texas Best Management Practice Evaluation Tool (TBET)

Conservation planners need simple yet accurate tools to predict sediment and nutrient losses from agricultural fields to guide conservation practice implementation and increase cost-effectiveness. The Texas Best Management Practice Evaluation Tool (TBET), which serves as an input/output interpreter and vastly simplified interface for the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), was developed to predict mean annual runoff, sediment, nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) losses from agricultural fields in Texas under a variety of management scenarios and conservation practices. The Texas Best Management Practice Evaluation Tool was developed to provide a scientific basis for decision making, evaluation, and reporting in state and federal conservation programs. A rigorous, data-intensive calibration and validation process was employed in TBET development. First, hydrology outputs were calibrated with basin scale streamflow data from 20 US Geological Survey sites. Then, runoff, sediment, total N, and total P outputs were calibrated and validated with measured field scale data (260+ site years). Even without calibration, TBET was able to make “good” to “very good” predictions of mean annual runoff and total P losses according to commonly applied model evaluation methods. Calibrated TBET predictions of sediment and total N losses were not as accurate but were still “satisfactory.” These much-improved results relative to those of often applied tools such as P Indices are very encouraging since the design goals of simple operation and accurate predictions for diverse Texas conditions with only readily available inputs were certainly met. Thus, TBET meets an important need by providing accurate, science-based estimates of conservation practice benefits at the field scale.

Scaling up to address new challenges to conservation on US farmland

Land used for agricultural production comprises a significant portion of the United States (US) land area and is increasingly the focus of conservation efforts. These efforts include programs to protect and improve the quality of water, soil, and wildlife habitat. Government conservation efforts in the US focus on voluntary conservation programs. As the success of these programs depends on the participation of agricultural producers, much research has examined factors influencing producer decision-making. This research has provided important insights regarding micro and meso-scale factors influencing participation, but has tended to overlook macro-scale political and economic factors that increasingly shape production decisions. We argue that researchers examining producer decision making need to scale up their analysis to include macro-scale factors, which pose increasing challenges to conservation efforts. We use two case studies, in California and Iowa, to illustrate scenarios where policy and market changes have led to a significant loss of participation in conservation efforts. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used in each case to examine how new political and economic conditions influence producer decision-making regarding conservation. In both cases new policies conflict with federal conservation initiatives, creating situations where producers feel they must abandon conservation practices. The emergence of these macro-scale challenges highlights the vulnerability of current voluntary approaches and indicates that alternative policy tools need to be explored. This discussion deserves immediate attention, given current proposals to cut funding for US conservation programs. New policy combinations should be explored that can effectively sustain producer participation in conservation efforts despite changes in policy and market conditions.

Struggle and Survival in Sallisaw: Revisiting John Steinbeck's Oklahoma

In the decades since its 1939 publication, John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath has shaped the ways in which readers have understood the experience of rural Americans during the Great Depression. Steinbeck used frontier mythology to tap into American nostalgia for yeoman agriculture and anxiety about its perceived collapse during the 1930s. This essay explores the historical experience of Sallisaw, the Oklahoma community Steinbeck fictionalized in his novel. It argues that many aspects of Steinbeck’s work reflected reality, but that the roots of local farmers’ social and economic marginalization ran far deeper than he suggested. Furthermore, it demonstrates that struggling agriculturalists responded in a variety of ways to the catastrophe of the Depression, turning to federal relief, conservation, and marginal farmland when confronted with hard times.

Changes in range-wide distribution of plains topminnow Fundulus sciadicus

Globally, riverine fishes are affected by degradation of habitat, stream alterations, lost stream connectivity and introduction of non-native species. The plains topminnow Fundulus sciadicus, a small stream-dwelling fish, currently does not have a federal conservation status in the USA; however, anecdotal reports have suggested its decline for the last 20 yr. Our goals were to evaluate the validity of its reported decline and to determine the current range-wide status of this species. We identified 927 historical sites (1889�1999) of occurrence and compiled recent records or re-visited 667 sites (2000�2010). We found plains topminnow at 189 (28.0%) of these sites. Although Nebraska represented the center of distribution and included 66.7% of all histori- cal sites, plains topminnow were only found at 34.4% of historical sites, with the largest declines observed in the Platte and Republican River drainages. Current sampling efforts in Colorado, Mis- souri, Oklahoma, South Dakota and Wyoming found similar declines. In Iowa and Kansas, plains topminnow was not found, whereas potential increases in distribution were observed in a single drainage in Minnesota and Wyoming. In addition to our sampling efforts, we repeatedly sampled 40 sites within Nebraska to determine detection probability. Detection probabilities for plains top- minnow were consistent at 0.76 ± 0.05 (mean ± SE) among sites that were sampled with a single visit. Further research is needed on the species and the potential threats to its occupation of sites, as no singular cause for decline seems plausible. Observed threats include degradation and loss of habitat and shifts in species assemblages towards generalist non-native species.

Taxonomy of Astragalus robbinsii var. fernaldii (Fabaceae): molecular and morphological analyses support transfer to Astragalus eucosmus

Astragalus robbinsii var. fernaldii , Fernald’s milkvetch, is a taxon of conservation concern currently due for reassessment of its provincial and federal conservation status. Restricted to a narrow region spanning Newfoundland and Labrador and Quebec, its taxonomic position with respect to two congeners, Astragalus eucosmus and Astragalus robbinsii var. minor , is poorly understood. To clarify the taxonomy of Fernald’s milkvetch, we studied variation in the ycf6–trnC and trnC–rpoB chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) spacers, generated amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) genotypes, and conducted a morphometric analysis. Parsimony and Bayesian analysis of the cpDNA data distinguished A. robbinsii var. minor from A. eucosmus and the majority of Fernald's milkvetch samples; both cpDNA and AFLP analysis were highly suggestive of gene flow between taxa and populations. Morphometric analysis indicates that Fernald's milkvetch is closer to A. eucosmus than to A. robbinsii var. minor in overall form and stipe length, while pubescence was not taxonomically informative. Based on these results, the recognition of Fernald's milkvetch is unwarranted; we recommend that the taxon be transferred to A. eucosmus.

An Ex Post Evaluation of Ohio’s Great Miami Water Quality Trading Program1

Newburn, David A. and Richard T. Woodward, 2011. An Ex Post Evaluation of Ohio’s Great Miami Water Quality Trading Program. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 48(1): 156‐169. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00601.xAbstract: Market‐based approaches to address water quality problems have resulted in only limited success, especially in trading programs involving both point and nonpoint sources. We analyze one of the largest point‐nonpoint trading programs – the Great Miami Trading Program in Ohio, administered by the Miami Conservancy District (MCD). Our evaluation focuses on the economic and institutional aspects of the program, including cost effectiveness, efficiency of bidding, transaction costs, trading ratios, and innovation. We use a unique dataset consisting of all bids from agricultural nonpoint sources and interviews of soil and water conservation district (SWCD) agents in the watershed. We find that the MCD’s reliance on county‐level SWCD offices to recruit and advise farmers has been essential to achieve relatively high rates of farmer participation. Additionally, the MCD is able to partly free ride on the administrative costs that SWCD offices receive to assist federal conservation programs, which is helpful to lower costs for a fledgling trading program. However, the involvement of SWCD offices reduced the potential cost savings from the reverse auction structure because some agents were able to learn about the threshold price over the six rounds of bidding and help farmers bid strategically. Overall, the program structure serves as an effective model for future trading programs in other regions that seek to involve agricultural nonpoint sources.

Piscatorial Politics: Fishery Regulation and the Economic Future of Rhode Island, 1869–1872

As competing factions debated the cause of declining fish populations in early 1870s Rhode Island, the crisis took on a political character. That, in turn, shaped the creation and early progress of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, the nation's first federal conservation agency, presumably dedicated to a scientific approach to fisheries regulation.

Application of the precautionary principle to taxa of uncertain status: the case of the Bellinger River turtle

Legislative and regulatory frameworks for conserving biodiversity often focus on the species as a fundamental unit for protection. In cases where the taxonomic or conservation status of a species is uncertain, the precautionary principle may be invoked in listing suspected but as yet undescribed taxa as vulnerable or endangered. In this paper, we present an evaluation of the taxo- nomic status of what has been regarded as a distinctive but as yet undescribed species of freshwater turtle, declared endangered in the Action Plan for Australian Reptiles and vulnerable in the sched- ules of state and federal conservation acts. Using mitochondrial sequence variation, we show that the Bellinger River turtle is an unremarkable population of a common and widespread species, Emydura macquarii. In addition, we present evidence suggesting that it may have been recently introduced to, or may be a recent invader of, the Bellinger River (New South Wales, Australia) where it may come to compete with Myuchelys georgesi, an endemic found only in the Bellinger River. Our study illus- trates the need to couple fundamental research with on-ground action early in an adaptive manage- ment context, particularly where taxonomic status of the target species is uncertain. Short-term cost savings of failing to do so may come to be greatly exceeded by longer-term opportunity loss where conservation dollars are limited.

An Introduction to the Special Issue on Pollinators

Pollinators provide crucial ecosystem services to rangelands. However, pollinators are undergoing a number of challenges that threaten these services. Our intent in organizing and editing this special issue of Rangelands is to provide those working in rangeland ecosystems information about why pollination is important to rangelands, why rangelands are important to pollinators, and how these relationships are being threatened. Recently pollinators have garnered attention due to high-profi le media coverage of honeybee population declines or collapses. This, coupled with increasing awareness of native pollinator decline, has paved the way for improved management resources for pollinator conservation efforts. Furthermore, federal conservation programs and other conservation-based incentive programs aimed at private lands will likely continue to increase their emphasis on maintaining, enhancing, and restoring pollinator habitat and pollinator populations in rangeland ecosystems. This special issue on pollinators will describe the connections between pollinators and rangelands, including how rangelands enhance pollinators and the services pollinators provide as well as how pollinators benefi t the objectives of rangeland managers. We begin this discussion by presenting a brief overview of how pollination works in rangelands, focusing on how plants grow and reproduce in rangelands and why they bother with bribing animals to help them in this endeavor (Harmon et al.). Benefi ts of pollination extend well beyond plant reproduction and fi tness. In the process of providing pollination services, pollinators are responsible for a host of additional ecosystem services. The importance of pollinators from a wildlife habitat perspective is discussed by Gilgert and Vaughan, along with examples of how rangeland management for pollinators can provide a useful framework for managing wildlife biodiversity. Pollinator diversity is also important in maintaining plant community diversity. Travers et al. highlight the importance of lepidopteran pollinators (moths and butterfl ies) and discuss how pollinators are important to the maintenance of rare plant species. In efforts to bring the issues threatening rangeland pollinators and their habitat to light, Cane describes the challenges that pollinators face in the western United States with an emphasis on wild bees. Rangeland management for pollinators is more specifi cally discussed by Black et al., who provide general considerations to use when looking at common rangeland management practices such as grazing, prescribed burning, mowing, and herbicide use. Although each of these management practices can result in negative consequences for pollinators, they can also be applied in a manner that will benefi t pollinators. Pollinator services are also a large concern for specialty agricultural crops. In our fi nal paper, Chaplin-Kramer et al. illustrate the value of rangeland for supplying pollination services to production agriculture in California. Papers in this issue have been peer-reviewed. Because of space limitations, we limited the number of citations within each article. Interested readers can access supplemental literature and data authors have referenced at www.srmjournals. org. To read more about pollinators visit “Buzzing the Literature” (Solga) for recent literature.

Federal Energy Efficiency and Conservation Laws

This paper provides an overview of U.S. law and policy concerning energy efficiency and conservation. The United States appears torn between two narratives - one expressing the abundant demonstrated opportunities provided by energy savings and the other based on a fear of deprivation from using less energy. Rather than choosing between the two, U.S. law and policy splits the difference - embracing efficiency and conservation more or less halfheartedly. Energy efficiency and conservation policy thus has a Groundhog Day aspect, in which the same or similar arguments are made year after year, decade after decade, and often (it appears) to little effect. In recent years, however, the federal government has strengthened the nation’s commitment to efficiency and conservation. The paper first discusses federal laws and policies that are intended to support efficiency and conservation as well as laws that are antagonistic to those goals. It then describes energy efficiency and conservation features of proposed climate change and clean energy legislation. Finally, this paper discusses energy conservation under the Framework Convention on Climate Change and in the European Union.

Analysis of private natural heritage reserves as a conservation strategy for the biodiversity of the cocoa region of the southern State of Bahia, Brazil

Brazil was the first country in Latin America to establish and regulate this type of reserve, and there are currently more than 700 Private Nature Heritage Reserves (RPPN in Portuguese) officially recognized by either federal or state environmental agencies. Together, these RPPN protect more than a half million hectares of land in the country. The coastal forests in the southern part of Bahia State extend 100 to 200 km inland, gradually changing in physiognomy as they occupy the dryer inland areas. The coastal forest has been subjected to intense deforestation, and currently occupies less than 10% of its original area. For this work the creation processes of the RPPN were consulted to obtain the data creation time, size of property, the condition of the remaining forest, succession chain and the last paid tax. After that, interviews with the owners were made to confirm this data. Sixteen RPPN have been established in this region until 2005. Their sizes vary from 4.7 to 800 ha. Ten of these RPPN are located within state or federal conservation areas or their buffer zones. In spite of the numerous national and international conservation strategies and environmental policies focused on the region, the present situation of the cocoa zone is threatening the conservation of the region's natural resources. The establishment of private reserves in the cocoa region could conceivably improve these conservation efforts. This type of reserve can be established under a uniform system supported by federal legislation, and could count on private organizations.

Evaluation of riparian forests established by the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP) in Virginia

Forested riparian buffer strips are recommended as an agricultural best management practice for protection of water quality and for wildlife habitat. Since the 1990s, federal and state conservation agencies in Virginia have been involved in establishment of riparian buffers under the auspices of programs, such as the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP). Riparian buffers established by the CREP program are considered to be beneficial towards the protection of water quality. However, the benefit is based upon assumption that planted trees and shrubs survive and grow. Little evaluation has been done within the state to document the success of the establishment efforts. We evaluated 63 riparian planting sites located in the Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley physiographic provinces of Virginia. Overall, the riparian forests in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont were fully stocked due to a combination of planted and natural regeneration. Riparian forests in the Ridge and Valley region were inadequately stocked, and the region has problems with invasive, exotic species. Major recommendations for improving the success of future riparian restoration and establishment efforts are to (1) include the potential for natural regeneration when planning CREP plantings, (2) stop mechanized operations in the riparian buffers that reduce planted and natural regeneration (e.g., mowing and disking), (3) reduce herbivory (particularly cattle) within the riparian buffer, and (4) control invasive exotic species as necessary.

Participation in Conservation Programs by Targeted Farmers: Beginning Limited-Resource, and Socially Disadvantaged Operators' Enrollment Trends

Beginning, limited-resource, and socially disadvantaged farmers make up as much as 40 percent of all U.S. farms. Some Federal conservation programs contain provisions that encourage participation by such “targeted” farmers and the 2008 Farm Act furthered these efforts. This report compares the natural resource characteristics, resource issues, and conservation treatment costs on farms operated by targeted farmers with those of other participants in the largest U.S. working-lands and land retirement conservation programs. Some evidence shows that targeted farmers tend to operate more environmentally sensitive land than other farmers, have different conservation priorities, and receive different levels of payments. Data limitations preclude a definitive analysis of whether efforts to improve participation by targeted farmers hinders or enhances the conservation programs’ ability to deliver environmental benefits cost effectively. But the different conservation priorities among types of farmers suggest that if a significantly larger proportion of targeted farmers participates in these programs, the programs’ economic and environmental outcomes could change.

Concessions and Conservation: A Study of Environmentalism and Anti-environmentalism among Commodity Farmers

Concessions and Conservation: A Study of Environmentalism and Anti-environmentalism among Commodity Farmers

Brazilian Federal Conservation Units: A Historical Overview of their Creation and of their Current Status

Abstract This paper provides a historical overview of the formation of the system of federal conservation units existent in Brazil as of 2006 and examines selected aspects of their current status. The text focuses on the following dimensions of these units - the creation of multiple categories, legal bases, age, number, absolute and average sizes, distribution by regions and by biomes, according to groups and categories. Major findings are that (1) much progress has been attained in the creation of conservation units, in terms of legal bases, diversified categories, numbers and areas, and coverage of Brazilian regions and biomes; (2) there is a deficit to be filled by the creation of numerous units, in order to make the system more efficient and encompassing and to honour the commitments made in international forums; (3) despite this need for physical expansion, the rather extensive set of existing conservation units already demands more than the existing energy, expertise and funding to be adequately managed.

Evaluating Nonpoint Source Critical Source Area Contributions at the Watershed Scale

Areas with disproportionately high pollutant losses (i.e., critical source areas [CSAs]) have been widely recognized as priority areas for the control of nonpoint-source pollution. The identification and evaluation of CSAs at the watershed scale allows state and federal programs to implement soil and water conservation measures where they are needed most. Despite many potential advantages, many state and federal conservation programs do not actively target CSAs. There is a lack of research identifying the total CSA pollutant contribution at the watershed scale, and there is no quantitative assessment of program effectiveness if CSAs are actively targeted. The purpose of this research was to identify and quantify sediment and total phosphorus loads originating from CSAs at the watershed scale using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool. This research is a synthesis of CSA targeting studies performed in six Oklahoma priority watersheds from 2001 to 2007 to aid the Oklahoma Conservation Commission in the prioritized placement of subsidized conservation measures. Within these six watersheds, 5% of the land area yielded 50% of sediment and 34% of the phosphorus load. In watersheds dominated by agriculture, the worst 5% of agricultural land contributed, on average, 22% of the total agricultural pollutant load. Pollutant loads from these agricultural CSAs were more than four times greater than the average load from agricultural areas within the watershed. Conservation practices implemented in these areas can be more effective because they have the opportunity to treat more pollutant. The evaluation of CSAs and prioritized implementation of conservation measures at the watershed scale has the potential to significantly improve the effectiveness of state and federally sponsored water quality programs.