Federal Conservation Programs Research Articles

Understanding landowner participation in the Conservation Reserve Program in the U.S. High Plains region

Understanding the array of financial and non-financial decision-making drivers of private landowners with vulnerable cropland for enrolling in the United States Department of Agriculture’s Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) is critical for the success and cost-effectiveness of agricultural policies that aim to create long-term agri-environmental security. Following the underpinnings of the Theory of Planned Behavior, we used Structural Equation Modeling to test the predictive validity and impacts of socio-cognitive variables: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, on landowners’ intent to enroll in CRP. We analyzed mailed survey data of landowners in the western High Plains of the United States, where irrigated agriculture is a major economic activity, and cropland consists of vulnerable wetlands that play a role in recharging the Ogallala Aquifer. Overall, landowners had a positive attitude towards the wetland conservation benefits of CRP enrollment and its benefits of preventing soil erosion and sedimentation. In addition, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavior controls positively influenced landowners’ intentions to (re)enroll in CRP. Among the three predictors, subjective norms had the largest influence. Landowners’ understanding of CRP benefits in improving water quality and availability, and opinions from their neighbors and other landowners were the most significant measured variables affecting their intention to enroll. For enhanced outreach and long-term success, we suggest that policymakers recognize and respond to a range of non-financial motivations to better design programs that represent the conservation benefits of wetlands to leverage their willingness to participate. Furthermore, (re)enrollment acres could be enhanced by understanding local barriers related to landowners’ skills and knowledge and fostering collaboration and coordination among different federal conservation programs in the region.

Factors influencing enrollment of leased cropland in the Conservation Stewardship Program in Kansas

Federal conservation programs in the United States rely on the voluntary participation of farmers and landowners to generate environmental benefits across agricultural landscapes. Understanding factors influencing enrollment of leased cropland is critical since over half of all cropland in the United States is leased. In this paper, we use a unique data set from a survey and choice experiment in Kansas to identify factors that affect enrollment of leased cropland in the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP). Results suggest that farmers’ environmental stewardship attitudes are associated with higher enrollment of leased cropland in the CSP. Fixed cash leases and relationships with landowners described as “business only” are related to lower enrollment in the CSP. Farmers with larger operations and those that rely more heavily on agricultural income are more likely to enroll. Farmers have strong preferences for higher CSP payments, and they dislike contracts that pay landowners a larger proportion of the base program payment. The time required to submit an application and the percentage of the operation that must be enrolled in the CSP contract are negatively related to contract selection. Our study suggests that reinforcing stewardship identities among farmers, encouraging closer tenant-landowner relationships, reducing transaction costs of participation, and relaxing contract requirements may increase enrollment of leased cropland in agri-environmental programs.

Survey of Missouri Landowners to Explore the Potential of Woody Perennials to Integrate Conservation and Production

The state of Missouri, USA offers a unique opportunity for tree planting under several federal conservation programs. However, many landowners remain hesitant to enroll and take land out of agricultural production. This study explores the willingness of landowners to adopt agroforestry systems with food producing tree and shrub species through federal conservation program funding using mail and online surveys. Surveys followed the Dillman Tailored Design Method to collect data on landowners’ farm characteristics, production practices, and land management choices. Survey participants were sampled on a county basis within each of the six major geographic regions of the state. Twelve counties were randomly selected, and surveys were mailed to a proportional sampling of farm addresses gathered from each of the county tax assessor offices. The goal of the survey was to (1) identify landowners’ current land management practices and goals, (2) understand landowners’ perceptions of and preferences for different planting plans for their farm, and (3) capture landowners’ interest in participating in conservation programs to assist in the planting of trees and shrubs on their land. Our analysis of this survey found that landowners are receptive to agroforestry plantings, rating them higher on average than traditional agricultural land management practices. Landowner age, past participation in a conservation program, and presence of marginal land all had significant correlation with willingness to adopt agroforestry. The inclusion of technical assistance or federal conservation funding was found to increase the willingness of landowners to plant multifunctional agroforestry designs.

Assessing Farmer Incentives for Transitioning Toward Sustainable Agriculture and Provisioning of Clean Water

Farms are a major source of water pollution in the form of nutrient run off that cause harmful algal blooms and anoxia, both signs of deteriorating water quality. Current policies that incentivize the adoption of nutrient management practices (NMPs) are insufficient, especially as climate change increases the frequency and intensity of flooding. To evaluate the incentives of current policy designs, we implemented a conjoint analysis on survey data collected in the Missisquoi and Lamoille watersheds of Lake Champlain Basin in three waves (2013, 2015, 2020). Using panel and cross-sectional observations over the three waves, we investigate farmers' willingness to accept (WTA) payment for NMPs that improve soil health and reduce nutrient runoff. We identified farmers' WTA for the adoption of three NMPs, cover cropping, conservation tillage, and buffer strips. The approach quantifies gaps between the incentives offered by the current federal conservation programs and payments preferred by farmers as well as the relative importance of NMP attributes. The influence of the payments decreased over the course of the three survey waves, suggesting the characteristics of NMPs are driving farmers' preferences for them. Our analysis shows farmers WTA is 1.13–6 times higher than what existing incentive programs offer. The incentive gaps between WTA and the cheapest of NMPs offered by EQIP are $55.61 for tillage, $103.60 for cover crop and $37.62 for buffers. Designing policy instruments to reduce this gap, the federal programs and policies will be more effective at scaling up the adoption of NMPs by farmers as a tool for sustainable watershed management.

Agroforestry Extent in the United States: A Review of National Datasets and Inventory Efforts

A comprehensive understanding of agroforestry adoption across a landscape is critical for effective agroforestry planning. The objectives of this study are to identify the sources of agroforestry data that can be used in the United States (U.S.) for national inventory purposes, discuss the possible uses and nuances of the datasets, synthesize the data to create regional maps, and provide recommendations for improving future agroforestry inventory efforts. To accomplish this, we queried multiple government databases containing agroforestry inventory data and spoke with agency representatives with in-depth knowledge of each dataset. Data from federal conservation programs were found to be useful for assessing practice-level adoption through a conservation program but not for general inventory use, since agroforestry systems can be established without federal assistance. For inventory purposes, the 2017 U.S. Census of Agriculture was found to be the most comprehensive dataset, with 30,853 farm operations reporting agroforestry use, representing 1.5% of all U.S. farms. However, this value is likely an underestimate, due to respondent unfamiliarity with agroforestry terminology. We propose several strategies to improve the accuracy of future agroforestry surveys, since a greater understanding of agroforestry adoption will influence decisions related to agricultural policies, technical assistance, and planning of these integrated systems.

Landowner Satisfaction with Conservation Programs in the Southern United States

Landowner satisfaction with conservation programs affects their participation decisions and subsequently effectiveness of these programs in improving environmental quality. This study determined the influence of landownership goals, environmental concerns, frequency of contacts with federal agencies, and socioeconomic factors on landowner satisfaction with available conservation programs in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley and East Gulf Coastal Plain sub-geographies of the Gulf Coastal Plains and Ozarks Landscape Conservation Cooperative. A generalized ordered logit model for each conservation program was constructed to analyze factors influencing landowner satisfaction levels with these programs. Of the 14 federal conservation programs assessed, the top programs, based on a satisfaction level, included Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), Conservation Technical Assistance (CTA), Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP), and Agricultural Conservation Easement Program (ACEP). The size of agricultural land owned, landownership goals including profit-making and personal recreation, concerns about wildlife habitat losses, and frequent contacts with federal agencies were positively related to landowner satisfaction levels. Better strategies addressing landowner’s environmental concerns, communicating technical knowledge, clarifying contract terms, and supporting financial resource leveraging will help reach the enrolled and non-enrolled landowners to increase their participation in conservation efforts.

Landscape characterization of floral resources for pollinators in the Prairie Pothole Region of the United States

Across agricultural areas of the Prairie Pothole Region (PPR), floral resources are primarily found on public grasslands, roadsides, and private grasslands used as pasture or enrolled in federal conservation programs. Little research has characterized the availability of flowers across the region or identified the primary stakeholders managing lands supporting pollinators. We explored spatial and temporal variability in flower abundance and richness across multiple grassland categories (i.e. general grassland, conservation grassland, and engineered pollinator habitat) in the PPR from 2015 to 2018 and used these data to estimate the number of flowering stems present across the region on private and public land holdings. Both flowering plant abundance and richness were greatest on engineered pollinator habitat, but this land category encompassed < 0.01% of the total grassland area in the PPR. There was a steady decrease in flower abundance over the growing season across all land categories. We detected considerable variation in flower abundance and richness across grassland categories, indicating that not all natural or semi-natural covers provide similar value to pollinators. At a landscape scale, large land holdings such as privately-owned grasslands and Conservation Reserve Program lands contributed the greatest number of flowers by an order of magnitude, though these lands collectively did not support the greatest abundance of flowers per unit area. Our research depicts spatial and temporal variation in pollinator resources across the region. Further, our research will assist managers and policy makers in understanding the role of public and private lands and conservation programs in supporting pollinators.

Iowa Farm Environmental Leaders' Perspectives on the U.S. Farm Bill Conservation Programs

As stakeholders prepare to lobby future Farm Bills, this study reveals farmers’ perspectives on federal conservation programs. In-depth interviews were held with ten farm environmental leaders, farmers who have extensive experience with conservation practices and federal conservation programs. Results reveal that conservation programs have played a limited but important role in incentivizing the adoption of and offsetting costs for establishing conservation practices. Programs’ strengths, weaknesses, and potential improvements were also explored; results reveal that most farmers believe existing conservation programs could be improved with relatively minor tweaks and adaptations, such as more flexibility in working land program requirements and adjustments to land retirement program payment rates. To some extent, farm environmental leaders also align themselves with the perspectives of environmental NGOs, advocating for transformative approaches, such as expanding mandatory conservation compliance to all cropland, including non-Highly Erodible Lands cropland.

Opportunities for Systematically Valuing Ecosystem Service Benefits Produced by Federal Conservation Programs

Federal agencies invest taxpayer dollars every year in conservation programs that are focused on improving a suite of ecosystem services produced on private lands. A better understanding of the public benefits generated by federal conservation programs could help improve governmental efficiency and economic welfare by providing science-based evidence for use in policy decision-making regarding targeting of federal conservation investments. Of specific concern here are conservation investments made by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). While previous research has shown that efficiency gains are possible using cost-benefit analysis for targeting conservation investments, agency-wide implementation of this approach by policy makers has been constrained by the limited availability of location-specific information regarding conservation benefits. Cost-effective opportunities for integrating location-specific ecosystem service valuation research with USDA conservation decision-making include: (1) institutionalizing funding of comparable studies suitable for benefit transfer, (2) utilizing non-traditional data sources for research complementing benefit transfer, and (3) creating a state-of-the-art program for developing and communicating research in ecosystem service valuation exemplifying the highest standards of scientific conduct.

Conservation significantly improves wetland conditions: evaluation of playa wetlands in different conservation status

This study assessed the conditions of wetland hydrology, hydrophyte and soil under different state and federal conservation programs, and then identified the restorable potential of conserved playas. The distribution of hydrology and hydrophyte were geospatially examined through annual tracking the quantity and quality of wetlands on historical hydric soil footprints under different conservation programs in the Rainwater Basin in Nebraska, USA during 2004–2015. The results show that the historical hydric soil footprints with the conservation programs had significantly better performance in ponded water and hydrophyte than non-conserved wetlands. The yearly average of ponded water areas within footprints varies at 12.59% for the Waterfowl Production Areas (WPAs), 14.78% for Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), 27.37% for Wetlands Reserve Program’s conservation easements (WRPs), and 1.86% for non-conserved wetlands, respectively. The yearly average of hydrophyte plant community coverage within footprints reaches at 77.51% for WPAs, 79.28% for WMAs, and 66.53% for WRPs, and 8.82% for non-conserved hydric footprints. Within conserved lands, Massie/Water soil series demonstrated the prominent ability to hold ponding water, especially in the ponded footprints with higher ponding frequency. Nevertheless, the proportion of Fillmore, Rusco or Butler soil series roughly decreased when the ponding water frequency increased. The areas, with high likelihood to be restored, are the places between annual ponding/hydrophyte covered areas and 11 years’ maximized ponding/hydrophyte areas.

Effect of Cost-Sharing Federal Programs on Adoption of Water Conservation Practices: Results from Propensity Score Matching Approach

The extent of recommended conservation practices is crucial for addressing natural resource concerns on the farms. The practices implementation is supported by working lands conservation programs, the Environmental Quality Incentives Program and the Conservation Stewardship Program. The paper applies a propensity score matching approach to evaluate the effects of enrollment in the two federal conservation programs on irrigation water conservation practices adoption in Louisiana row crop agriculture. The analysis reveals that enrollment in the programs leads to statistically significant greater adoption of water management practices. The analysis provides correction for selection bias in adoption that can result from not accounting for the differences between program participants and non-participants. The analysis enables to provide a stronger and relatively accurate argument about the impact of conservation support programs on the adoption of conservation on the ground.

Crop advisers as conservation intermediaries: Perceptions and policy implications for relying on nontraditional partners to increase U.S. farmers’ adoption of soil and water conservation practices

Federal agricultural land use policies in the United States aimed at protecting soil health and water quality typically rely on persuading individual farmers to voluntarily adopt conservation practices. An expanding body of literature suggests that private sector intermediaries, such as crop advisers, are increasingly trusted sources of information for farmers about conservation practices and thus may be persuasive actors in the conservation-adoption realm. While previous studies have explored farmers’ perceptions of crop advisers facilitating conservation practice adoption and participating in conservation programs in agricultural landscapes, little research to date has explored crop advisers’ perceptions of this role, and few agricultural land use policies have explicitly included crop advisers as conservation partners. This study fills a critical void in the literature by evaluating the Saginaw Bay Regional Conservation Partnership Program, an innovative agricultural policy that relies on crop advisers to recruit farmers into the program and assist them with the adoption of conservation practices. Through a survey and interviews with crop advisers in the Saginaw Bay watershed in Michigan, USA, we explore crop advisers’ perceptions of their role in the program and of delivering conservation information to farmers. We found that crop advisers have positive attitudes towards land/water resources and conservation practices, believe they have an important intermediary role to play in facilitating conservation practice adoption, and believe their supervisors are supportive of them promoting conservation. However, difficulties in collaboration and communication between the private and governmental sectors – resulting from perceived differences, operational differences, and territoriality – present a key barrier to crop advisers increasing their intermediary role in the promotion and implementation of federal conservation programs. Future research and policy initiatives should explore how to address public-private territoriality and whether crop advisers should be incentivized to deliver information about conservation practices and/or assist in enrolling farmers in federal conservation programs.

Soil and water conservation method adoption in a highly erosive watershed: the case of Southwest Oklahoma's Fort Cobb watershed

A major source of pollution in agricultural landscapes is surface runoff and non-point source pollution generated from agricultural production practices. In-stream, stream bank and riparian conservation/management practices can be implemented to reduce sediment loading solely or in conjunction with upland practices. Survey results from producers in the Fort Cobb Reservoir watershed, a highly erosive watershed in southwest Oklahoma with a history of state and federal conservation programs, provide information required for improving understanding of operators’ likelihood of adoption. Two models of soil and water conservation were estimated, a logit model of likelihood of enrollment and a Poisson model of the total number of practices adopted. Results reinforced previous findings that attitudes, gender and education influence conservation program enrollment. Farming experience, gender and attitudes towards conservation increased the total number of practices adopted.

Public–private partnership wetland restoration programs benefit Species of Greatest Conservation Need and other wetland-associated wildlife

US federal conservation programs, including the National Resource Conservation Service’s Wetland Reserve Program (WRP) and the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program (PFWP), partner with private landowners to conserve and restore wetland habitats. Despite the success of these programs in terms of wetland area enrolled, uncertainties exist as to whether they are meeting their stated goals, including the restoration of wildlife habitat. In the St. Lawrence Valley of New York State, we investigated two questions related to WRP and PFWP wetland restorations. First, was whether restorations provide habitat for wetland-associated wildlife, including Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN) prioritized by the New York State Wildlife Action Plan (SWAP). Second, was whether restorations support wildlife assemblages that are comparable to natural reference wetlands. Bird, anuran, turtle, snake, and fish species assemblages were surveyed at 47 WRP and PFWP restorations, and 18 natural reference wetlands. We detected 31 SGCN at restorations, including SGCN from each assemblage surveyed. Assemblage metrics, including species richness and relative abundance, did not differ between restored and reference wetlands for any of the assemblages surveyed. These results indicate that restorations provide habitat for SGCN and other wetland-associated wildlife, and that assemblages at restorations are similar to those at natural reference wetlands. We conclude that WRP and PFWP wetland restorations in this region are meeting federal program-level goals related to the restoration of wildlife habitat, and are contributing to the recovery of SGCN.

Farmer Transaction Costs of Participating in Federal Conservation Programs: Magnitudes and Determinants

Transaction costs may be a barrier to participation in USDA conservation programs. Data on perceived barriers and transaction costs from the 2012 USDA Agricultural Resources Management Survey of soybean farmers were analyzed. Of farmers who had not applied for programs, almost a third agreed that applying for programs and documenting compliance (perceived transaction costs) were barriers to participation. The measured magnitudes of transaction costs of those who did apply varied by program but do not seem particularly onerous and are lower than in European studies. Regression analysis indicates that complexity of the program and the farming system may increase transaction costs.

Periodic corrections to agricultural land values provide opportunity for conservation

P rivate landowners manage over 75% of the land in the United States. More than 90% of each state's area in the Midwest and Great Plains is owned privately (Powell 2012). Thus, the decisions made on private lands may serve as major sources of change in farmed landscapes and ecosystems. Federal conservation programs, such as the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), can substantially affect landscapes. In 2013, 2% of the surface area of Nebraska and 4.5% of Iowa was protected through enrollment in CRP (USDA 2014a). However, natural resource planners who work to conserve soil, water, and wildlife on private lands are faced with the complex task of finding willing landowners to enroll in the portfolio of federal conservation programs. A variety of factors motivate landowner decisions (Quinn and Burbach 2008), but economic considerations are usually a clear driver (Cary and Wilkinson 1997). High prices paid for commodities have recently competed with conservation interests (Powell 2012). For example, acres enrolled in CRP declined by 18% during 2007 to 2013 in the United States. Four midwestern states—Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, and Missouri—saw an average decline of acres in CRP of 12%. Four states in the northern Great Plains—Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota—had…

Associating conservation/production patterns in US farm policy with agricultural land-use in three Iowa, USA townships, 1933–2002

Agricultural policy objectives in developed nations include counteracting overproduction, increasing economic and social well-being, and environmental protection. Such policies, however, often work at cross-purposes. While vast financial resources have been invested in farm programs, little research connects historic trends in agricultural policy with land-use patterns in agricultural landscapes. We connect the legislative history of US farm bills with land-use decisions as observed on the historical agricultural landscape in three townships in Iowa, USA, 1933–2002. With a high proportion of agricultural land, increasing biofuels development, and high participation in federal conservation programs, Iowa presents an ideal case study to explore the relationship between policy and historical land use. Using data from the US Census of Agriculture and historical aerial photography, we conduct our analysis within a framework that identifies alternating eras of US farm policy in terms of legislative focus on conservation vs. production. We describe the impact of US farm policy on the following indicators: maize and soybean area, production, and productivity; hectares in idled land, pasture, and hay ground; and adoption of soil conservation practices. Patterns of agricultural and conservation land use support the idea of alternating conservation–production eras of US farm policy. Three important patterns emerge: (1) despite reductions in maize hectares that correspond with conservation-oriented policy eras, supply management policies have failed to control maize production due to increased productivity; (2) as pasture and hay hectares decline, government set-aside programs are increasingly important for perennial vegetation within agricultural landscapes; and (3) although soil conservation practices have generally increased as agricultural land use has intensified, persistent links between poor environmental quality and farm programs suggest that implementation alone will not achieve environmental quality goals. Environmental improvement likely requires a shift from policies focused on the quantity of commodities produced to policies focused on pattern and process of production in multifunctional agricultural landscapes, and we discuss how policies that promote extensification abroad might inform domestic agricultural policy reform.

Farmer Participation in U.S. Farm Bill Conservation Programs

Conservation policy in agricultural systems in the United States relies primarily on voluntary action by farmers. Federal conservation programs, including the Environmental Quality Incentives Program, offer incentives, both financial and technical, to farmers in exchange for adoption of conservation practices. Understanding motivations for (as well as barriers to) participation in voluntary programs is important for the design of future policy and effective outreach. While a significant literature has explored motivations and barriers to conservation practice adoption and participation in single programs, few studies in the U.S. context have explored general participation by farmers in one place and time. A mixed-methods research approach was utilized to explore farmer participation in all U.S. Farm Bill programs in Indiana. Current and past program engagement was high, with nearly half of survey respondents reporting participation in at least one program. Most participants had experience with the Conservation Reserve Program, with much lower participation rates in other programs. Most interview participants who had experience in programs were motivated by the environmental benefits of practices, with incentives primarily serving to reduce the financial and technical barriers to practice adoption. The current policy arrangement, which offers multiple policy approaches to conservation, offers farmers with different needs and motivations a menu of options. However, evidence suggests that the complexity of the system may be a barrier that prevents participation by farmers with scarce time or resources. Outreach efforts should focus on increasing awareness of program options, while future policy must balance flexibility of programs with complexity.

Development and validation of the Texas Best Management Practice Evaluation Tool (TBET)

Conservation planners need simple yet accurate tools to predict sediment and nutrient losses from agricultural fields to guide conservation practice implementation and increase cost-effectiveness. The Texas Best Management Practice Evaluation Tool (TBET), which serves as an input/output interpreter and vastly simplified interface for the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), was developed to predict mean annual runoff, sediment, nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) losses from agricultural fields in Texas under a variety of management scenarios and conservation practices. The Texas Best Management Practice Evaluation Tool was developed to provide a scientific basis for decision making, evaluation, and reporting in state and federal conservation programs. A rigorous, data-intensive calibration and validation process was employed in TBET development. First, hydrology outputs were calibrated with basin scale streamflow data from 20 US Geological Survey sites. Then, runoff, sediment, total N, and total P outputs were calibrated and validated with measured field scale data (260+ site years). Even without calibration, TBET was able to make “good” to “very good” predictions of mean annual runoff and total P losses according to commonly applied model evaluation methods. Calibrated TBET predictions of sediment and total N losses were not as accurate but were still “satisfactory.” These much-improved results relative to those of often applied tools such as P Indices are very encouraging since the design goals of simple operation and accurate predictions for diverse Texas conditions with only readily available inputs were certainly met. Thus, TBET meets an important need by providing accurate, science-based estimates of conservation practice benefits at the field scale.

An Ex Post Evaluation of Ohio’s Great Miami Water Quality Trading Program1

Newburn, David A. and Richard T. Woodward, 2011. An Ex Post Evaluation of Ohio’s Great Miami Water Quality Trading Program. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 48(1): 156‐169. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00601.xAbstract: Market‐based approaches to address water quality problems have resulted in only limited success, especially in trading programs involving both point and nonpoint sources. We analyze one of the largest point‐nonpoint trading programs – the Great Miami Trading Program in Ohio, administered by the Miami Conservancy District (MCD). Our evaluation focuses on the economic and institutional aspects of the program, including cost effectiveness, efficiency of bidding, transaction costs, trading ratios, and innovation. We use a unique dataset consisting of all bids from agricultural nonpoint sources and interviews of soil and water conservation district (SWCD) agents in the watershed. We find that the MCD’s reliance on county‐level SWCD offices to recruit and advise farmers has been essential to achieve relatively high rates of farmer participation. Additionally, the MCD is able to partly free ride on the administrative costs that SWCD offices receive to assist federal conservation programs, which is helpful to lower costs for a fledgling trading program. However, the involvement of SWCD offices reduced the potential cost savings from the reverse auction structure because some agents were able to learn about the threshold price over the six rounds of bidding and help farmers bid strategically. Overall, the program structure serves as an effective model for future trading programs in other regions that seek to involve agricultural nonpoint sources.