Fecal Coliform Counts Research Articles

Prevalence of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella in Raw Salad Vegetables in Dhaka Metropolitan Area

Raw salad vegetables have become very popular among consumers due to their multiple health benefits. The bacteriological quality of these salad vegetables is of great public health concern. This study was conducted to determine the presence of potential pathogenic and multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria in raw salad vegetables served in different restaurants in Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. A total of 50 samples, comprising different types of raw salad vegetables were collected from restaurants in Mirpur (n=10), Dhanmondi (n=10), Old Dhaka (n=10), Gulshan (n=10) and Bashundhara Residential Area (n=10). The highest counts for total coliforms and fecal coliforms were 4.02 × 103 cfu/ml and 1.3×103 cfu/ml, respectively. The isolates were E. coli, total coliform, fecal coliform and Salmonella spp. Among them, fecal coliform and Salmonella spp. were found to be more pathogenic. As potential pathogenic bacteria, Salmonella spp. were tested for antibiotic sensitivity and all of them showed resistance against amoxicillin, ampicillin, azithromycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, kanamycin, streptomycin, tetracycline, norfloxacin, and trimethoprim. The findings assist to understand the level of contamination of pathogenic and MDR bacteria in raw salad vegetables, which will create awareness of food safety and public health.

Impacts of Pit latrines on Groundwater Quality in Squatter Settlements in Zanzibar

Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in Zanzibar. Most of the people in squatter settlement rely on shallow groundwater due to insufficient supply of treated water. In these areas, shallow wells are located close to pit latrines, the condition which increasing the risk of contamination. This study aimed to assess the impact of pit latrines on groundwater quality in five sub-urban areas of squatter settlements in Unguja Island. Water samples were collected from twenty shallow wells and analyzed for the microbiological and physio-chemical parameters. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression model was used to assess the influence of distance from pit latrine to the groundwater sources. The data revealed that nitrate and chloride concentrations increases when the distance between the shallow wells and the nearest pit latrine decreases. In contrary, faecal coliform counts shows that for every unit increase in the distance from pit latrine to the shallow wells the counts decreased by 42 CFU/100 ml. However, OLS regression model did not show significant relationship of total coliform and distance from the well. This study suggests that there are other factors that may accelerate the total coliform bacteria in water wells. These results illustrate that public health risks associated with waterborne diseases could be ranked high at densely populated squatter settlement. Thus, the study recommends that routine monitoring of shallow wells is required as well as application of low-cost technologies such as raised and lined pit latrines in order to minimize potential risk of groundwater pollution.

Investigation on the Quality of Prolonged Storage of Packaged Water Commonly Produced in North Central, Nigeria

This study investigated the effects of prolonged storage conditions on the physicochemical parameter, toxic metals, microbial loads, and health risks assessment of randomly selected three brands of sachet and bottled water in North Central, Nigeria. One hundred eighty samples of water brands (sachet and bottled) were collected from 10 different factories and were grouped into three. They were analyzed immediately (initial), being exposed to mild sunlight (stored with a container) and exposed to intense sunlight (stored without a container) conditions for six weeks. The results of the physicochemical parameters (sachet and bottle) were within the limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON). While the results of heavy metals analysis for both sachet and bottled water recorded 0.15 - 0.51 mg/L (0.10 mg/L , 0.05 mg/L), 0.13 - 0.38 mg/L (0.015 mg/L, 0.01 mg/L) and 0.55 - 1.11 mg/L (0.03 mg/L, 0.3 mg/L) for Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb) and Iron (Fe) respectively, as compared to the permissible limits (values in the bracket for each heavy metals) set by WHO and SON. The microbial analysis results ranged between 6.58 - 124.51 Cfu/100 mL, 0.52 - 37.56 Cfu/100 mL, 0.07 - 5.00 Cfu/100 mL, 0 - 2.07 Cfu/100 mL for Total Bacteria Count (TBC), Total Coliform Count (TCC), Faecal Coliform Count (FCC) and Total Fungal Count (TFC) respectively, which showed no effective quality control system. Incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) assessment revealed a carcinogenic health risk to the populace drinking this water. The study concludes that water stored under sunlight for a long period is not good for human consumption and therefore adequate monitoring by the appropriate agencies is emphasized.

Microbiological Assessment of Rainwater and Air Quality of Some Areas in Port Harcourt

The microbiological quality of Rainwater and air of the market, hospital, and residential area was evaluated. Roof-harvested and direct rainwater samples were collected from the three aforementioned locations. The air quality was investigated using the plate sedimentation method. Culture-based techniques were used for the enumeration and isolation of microorganisms in water samples, while the identities were confirmed using morphological, microscopic, and biochemical tests. The range of the total heterotrophic bacterial counts (THBC) of rainwater was 1.2±7.1x106 to 6.1±1.1 x106 cfu/ml, total coliform count (TCC) ranged between 8.0±0.00 x103 to 30.5 ±2.1 x103 cfu/ml, faecal coliform counts (FCC) ranged between 1.0±0.00×103 to 6.0±0.00×103 cfu/ml, fungal counts ranged from 2.0±0.00x103 to 11.0±0.00x103 cfu/ml. The THB, TCC, and FCC of the air samples, ranged between 0.04±0.02 to 0.13±0.04 cfu/min-m2, 0.01±0.00to 0.03±0.00 cfu/min-m2, and 0.01±0.00 to 0.02±0.00 cfu/min-m2, respectively. There was a significant difference (P≤ 0.05) in the total heterotrophic bacterial load of the roof-harvested rainwater and the direct rainwater of the residential area, roof-harvested and direct rainwater of the hospital. Statistically, there was a significant difference (P≤ 0.05) in the total coliform counts of the water with the coliform counts of the roof-harvested rainwater of the market being significantly higher than the coliform counts recorded in other locations. Seven bacterial genera belonging to Micrococcus sp, Staphylococcus, Escherichia coli, Proteus sp, Pseudomonas sp, Enterobacter sp, and Bacillus sp were isolated. The fungal isolates were Candida sp, Mucor sp, Rhizopus sp, Penicillium sp, Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus flavus. The results showed that rainwater is not fit for consumption due to its components and can cause harm to individuals if consumed without treatment. proper treatment is recommended before consumption. The results also showed that the microbiological quality of the air samples was influenced by their environment.

Evaluating the Impacts of Sewage Disposal on Groundwater Composition in the Peri-Urban Community: A Case of Ikoto- Ijebu, Ogun State, Nigeria

Groundwater is an essential resource that requires sufficient protection from human-induced pollution sources, assessments of water quality is an essential tool for water resources management strategies. the Physicochemical parameters measured were Hydrogen ion concentration (pH), Temperatures (oC), and electrical conductivity (EC), total bacteria and faecal coliform counts (Tb/fcc) were determined using the membranefiltration method; pH values was measure using a pH meter (Hach), the pH meter sensitivity was determined using buffers with a pH of 4.0 and pH of 9.0 and electrical conductivity values were taken, the TDS, total dissolved solids, measured using a meter; the SO42-, Fe2+ and NO3- were determined using Hach DR/2000 spectrophotometer. The water sampled temperatures range between 25.80 °C and 27.90 °C and arithmetic mean of 25.85 °C. The pH values of sampled wells and boreholes were in the acceptable pH range of 6.5 – 8.5, electrical conductivity values measured from the samples ranged from 94 μS per cm to 1418 μS per cm, having an arithmetic average of 370 μS/ cm; it is just one well that exceeded the permissible limit of 1000 μS per cm. The Total Dissolved Solids values ranged from 73 mg per Litre to 528 mg per Litre, an arithmetic average of 370 mg per Litre. The maximum value of 528 mg per Litre from zone B exceeded the acceptable limit of 500 mg per Litre. The concentrations are from 5 to 27×10 cfu / mL for total coliform counts and 0 to 12×10 cfu / mL for E. coli.77.2% of the samples fall within BOD values >3 mg per Litre, and 32.8% had BOD > 5 mg per Litre, signifying biogenic pollution and a possible seepage of mildly treated wastewater from sewage tanks near the wells. BOD and the bacteriological studies, for assessing biogenic pollution in water, indicated water samples are contaminated with wastewater.

Bacteriological assessment of crab (Pachycheles pubescens) and dog whelk (Nucella lapillus) shellfishes from mesotidal estuarine ecosystem

Background: Shellfishes are susceptible to a wide variety of bacterial pathogens, most of which are capable of causing disease in humans but are considered to be saprophytic in nature. Bacteriological diversity of shellfishes depends on the fishing grounds, habitats and environmental factors around them. This study assessed the bacteria associated with shellfishes, Pachycheles pubescens (crab) and Nucella lapillus (dog whelk) harvested from mesotidal estuarine ecosystem.
 Methodology: The bacteriological assessment of crab (Pachycheles pubescens) and dog whelk (Nucella lapillus) harvested from Okwano Obolo estuary in Eastern Obolo local government area (LGA), Akwa Ibom was evaluated. The density of heterotrophic and potential pathogens was determined using standard analytical procedures. The pure bacterial isolates were grouped into recognizable taxonomic units and characterized to their generic level.
 Results: The mean (and range) total heterotrophic bacterial count (THBC), total coliform count (TCC), faecal coliform count (FCC), Salmonella-Shigella count (SSC) and total Vibrio count (TVC) of the crab samples (log10 cfu/g) for the crab samples are; 4.281±0.085 (4.18-4.39); 4.187±0.078 (4.11-4.30); 4.115±0.081 (4.00-4.20); 4.076±0.058 (4.00-4.14); and 4.114±0.085 (4.00-4.23) respectively (p=0.003915). For the dog whelk samples, the mean (and range) THBC, TCC, FCC, SSC and TVC are 4.232±0.095 (4.11-4.36); 4.185±0.095 (4.04-4.28); 4.082±0.068 (4.00-4.18); 4.062±0.055 (4.00-4.15) and 5.155±0.062 (4.08-4.23) respectively (p=0.028856. Bacterial species isolated from the crab and dog whelk samples included Salmonella, Bacillus, Shigella, Corynebacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Vibrio (which was the most frequently isolated bacteria pathogen from both samples in 80%).
 Conclusion: Some of the bacteria species especially Vibrio, Salmonella and Shigella isolated from the crab and dog whelk samples are known human pathogens, that can pose serious health risk if these seafoods are not properly cooked before consumption.

ISOLATION OF MULTI DRUG RESISTANT BACTERIA FROM BORE WATER SAMPLES IN AND AROUND VISAKHAPATNAM

Objective: The aim of the present study was to determine the levels of groundwater contamination by isolating total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and bacterial pathogens.
 Methods: A total of 32 water samples, comprising 5 samples from each GVMC urban area zone, Visakhapatnam were randomly collected from different areas. Evaluation of Total and fecal coliform counts was done by using multiple-tube fermentation technique and were reported as the most probable number (MPN) of organisms present per 100 ml of sample.
 Results: The samples collected from the zones Yendada (zone I), Marripalem (zone IV), Chinna musidiwada (zone VI) showed the highest total and fecal coliform counts (MPN>180). Nearly 30 samples (94%) yielded bacterial isolates. Among the isolates Pseudomonas spp. showed highest susceptibility to cefepime and imipenem antibiotics. All the microorganisms isolated were multidrug resistant with a multidrug antibiotic resistant index more than 0.2.
 Conclusion: These multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms are considered as a major threat to the public health and should receive more attention.

Assessment of Physicochemical and Microbiological Qualities of Potable Water Sources in Okorenkoko, Delta State Nigeria

Accessibility of Potable water in rural and riverine communities have reduced drastically in recent times. A total of six borehole water samples and a freshwater sample were obtained from Okerenkoko community in Delta State, Nigeria. The water samples were analyzed for physicochemical and microbiological parameters using standard procedures. Pearson correlational analysis was employed to evaluate the level of association of the data using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 23. Our results showed that pH concentration values ranged from 5.62 to 7.81, electrical conductivity had 10.03 to 490.01 µS/cm, dissolved oxygen varied from 3.90 to 7.91 mg/L, COD had 10.01 to 50.03 mg/L. The fecal coliform count ranged from 4- 2400 MPN/ml, while the surface water had a fecal coliform count 2400 MPN/ml; fungal count 3.1 Log10CFU/ml and 3.6 Log10CFU/ml respectively, Total aerobic count had a maximal concentration value of 5.8 Log10CFU/ml and 5.4 Log10CFU/ml; Total Salmonella Shigella Count it had a concentration of 4.0 Log10CFU/ml. Microbes associated with the water samples were Bacillus sp., Escherichia sp., Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp., Shigella sp., Proteus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Klebsiella sp., Vibrio sp. and Micrococcus sp. There is an urgent need to source-track the trajectory of pollutants from both from domestic and industrial activities. There is need that the government at all levels should improve the available potable water resources in Okerenkoko community.

CrAssphage May Be Viable Markers of Contamination in Pristine and Contaminated River Water.

Viruses are the most biologically abundant entities and may be ideal indicators of fecal pollutants in water. Anthropogenic activities have triggered drastic ecosystem changes in rivers, leading to substantial shifts in chemical and biological attributes. Here, we evaluate the viability of using the presence of crAssphage as indicators of fecal contamination in South African rivers. Shotgun analysis revealed diverse crAssphage viruses in these rivers, which are impacted by chemical and biological pollution. Overall, the diversity and relative abundances of these viruses was higher in contaminated sites compared to pristine locations. In contrast to fecal coliform counts, crAssphage sequences were detected in pristine rivers, supporting the assertion that the afore mentioned marker may be a more accurate indicator of fecal contamination. Our data demonstrate the presence of diverse putative hosts which includes members of the phyla Bacteroidota, Pseudomonadota, Verrucomicrobiota, and Bacillota. Phylogenetic analysis revealed novel subfamilies, suggesting that rivers potentially harbor distinct and uncharacterized clades of crAssphage. These data provide the first insights regarding the diversity, distribution, and functional roles of crAssphage in rivers. Taken together, the results support the potential application of crAssphage as viable markers for water quality monitoring. IMPORTANCE Rivers support substantial populations and provide important ecosystem services. Despite the application of fecal coliform tests and other markers, we lack rapid and reproducible approaches for determining fecal contamination in rivers. Waterborne viral outbreaks have been reported even after fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) were suggested to be absent or below regulated levels of coliforms. This indicates a need to develop and apply improved indicators of pollutants in aquatic ecosystems. Here, we evaluate the viability of crAssphage as indicators of fecal contamination in two South African rivers. We assess the abundance, distribution, and diversity of these viruses in sites that had been predicted pristine or contaminated by FIB analysis. We show that crAssphage are ideal and sensitive markers for fecal contamination and describe novel clades of crAss-like phages. Known crAss-like subfamilies were unrepresented in our data, suggesting that the diversity of these viruses may reflect geographic locality and dependence.

EFFECT OF ABATTOIR WASTE ON THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND FAECAL COLIFORM LOAD OF SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND WATER BODIES IN UGHELLI, DELTA STATE

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of effluent from the Ogheneweta abattoir on the physico-chemical and faecal coliform load of surface and underground water surrounding the abattoir. The study compared the water quality parameters with the guidelines provided by the Federal Ministry of Environment (FMENV) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The research involved the determination of various factors, including physico-chemical characteristics, microbial activity, and spatial and seasonal variations of water. Four sampling stations were selected for the study, with two focusing on groundwater impact and the other two on surface water impact. Differences between the two types of stations were also analyzed. Field sampling was conducted over a nine-month period, and water quality parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, biochemical oxygen demand, and faecal coliform load were measured. Standard methods and instruments were utilized for sample collection and analysis, following established water analysis procedures. Statistical analysis was performed using a paired sample T-test (P<0.05). The results indicated that water temperature ranged from 25.56oC to 27.78oC, pH from 6.52 to 7.11, total dissolved solids (TDS) from 10.67mg/l to 210.78mg/l, electrical conductivity (EC) from 20.95mg/l to 426.05mg/l, dissolved oxygen (DO) from 4.17mg/l to 4.72mg/l, turbidity from 1.95mg/l to 9.67mg/l, and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) from 1.33mg/l to 1.74mg/l. Faecal coliform counts in underground and surface water samples ranged from 2.00 to 2.22MPN/100L and 2.67 to 7.33MPN/100L, respectively. The study findings revealed that the abattoir activities had a negative impact on the quality of both surface and underground water within the Ogheneweta abattoir area. While most physico-chemical and microbial parameters adhered to FMENV and WHO guidelines, the concentrations of turbidity in surface water and faecal coliform in both surface and underground water exceeded the acceptable limits. Moreover, the study showed distinct seasonal variations in physico-chemical parameters, with higher values recorded for pH, TDS, and turbidity during the rainy season, and lower values observed for conductivity. Based on the results, it is recommended that a groundwater monitoring program be implemented to assess the water quality status of wells near abattoirs, ensuring the protection of local residents’ health. Prompt intervention measures, including the establishment of effluent treatment facilities, are essential for effective waste management at abattoirs in Ughelli.

Parasitic Contamination and Microbiological Quality of Commonly Consumed Fresh Vegetables Marketed in Debre Berhan Town, Ethiopia.

Parasitic and microbial contamination and the pattern of occurrence of the parasite species depends on weather conditions, socio-cultural conditions, sampling season, analyzed vegetable products, and other factors. Therefore, local assessment of vegetable contamination is crucial for targeted and effective interventions. A cross-sectional study was conducted from February to August 2022. A questionnaire was used to assess factors associated with parasite contamination of vegetables during the marketing period. The selected vegetables were purchased and processed for parasite and microbial analysis using standard methods. Finally, all data were summarized and analyzed using SPSS software version 25. A total of 180 vegetable samples were purchased from 180 vendors. This study identified a total of 129 parasites from 180 vegetable samples, with an overall contamination rate of (75; 41.7%). Both protozoa (41; 31.8%) and helminthes (88; 68.2%) were identified from vegetables. Contamination with more than one parasite species was (38; 21.1%). The kind of produce, finger nail status of vendors/sellers, the medium of the display, the type of market and not washed prior to display were significantly associated with parasite contamination. The results also showed that vegetable microbial load for total heterotrophic count, total coliform count, fecal coliform count, yeast count, and mold count was higher in the afternoon than in the morning. To decrease risks to public health, local health authorities and/or market inspectors should establish and implement strategies to reduce contamination such as encouraging specific display medium and washing of vegetables prior to display.

Phytoremediation of Wastewater through Implemented Wetland – A Review

Contrary to the typical treatment system, built wetland systems have become high-performance wastewater treatment technology in recent years. In India as well, this technology is becoming more important for reducing water pollution. A built wetland is essentially a tank that has been planted with plants tolerant of waterlogged conditions and filled with a substrate. In this method, wastewater is treated by plants through phytoremediation. A manmade wetland's plant species is crucial in maintaining the temperature needed for a variety of biological and physiological processes necessary for the efficient treatment of wastewater. Hydraulic retention time (HRT), plant type, and bed material make up a built wetland's key elements. Generally, gravels and sand are used as the bed media and the plant species used are grasses like typha grass, canna indica, para grass, etc. Environmental-related parameters that are taken into consideration are pH, COD, BOD, TSS, NH3-N, PO4, nitrate, and Fecal coliform count in one complete macrophyte life cycle. The present paper gives information about the different types of constructed wetlands, pollutants removal mechanism by microphytes, engineering design used, and application of implemented wetlands.

Fermented Liquid Biofertilizer from Banana Waste-A Value Added Product

As a remedy to meet the current alarming situation caused by chemical fertilizers, agricultural sectors are now refocusing on organic manure production from food waste. Banana wastes have potential biomass and nutrients which could be reutilized. This study aimed to assess the potential of fermented banana waste as a biofertilizer. Banana fruit waste was fermented using cow dung and cow urine. The Physico-chemical components, total bacterial load, phosphate solubilizers count, fecal coliforms count, and germination index of the prepared Fermented Banana Waste – Biofertilizer (FBW-B) was studied. pH of 6.72 and EC value of 19.41 ± 0.09 ms/cm were observed in Fermented Banana Waste - Biofertilizer (FBW-B). The mineral content of FBW-B was: total nitrogen (0.26 ± 0.001), phosphorus (0.35 ± 0.02), potassium (0.04 ± 0.00 %), calcium (2096 ± 12.08 mg/kg), magnesium (595 ± 4.23 mg/kg), sulphur (169 ± 10.7 mg/kg), iron (122.6 ± 0.92 mg/kg), zinc (8.38 ± 0.9 mg/kg), copper (2.41 ± 0.1 mg/kg), lead (4.34 ± 0.02 mg/kg) and manganese (9.83 ± 0.7 mg/kg). In the bacterial population, phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) in a considerable count were noted in FBW-B with the absence of fecal coliforms. Germination test shows that FBW-B has growth promotion potential after 50 fold dilution. The outcome of the study contributes to the development of organic liquid fertilizer from fruit waste and alleviates the effect of disposed of fruit waste and harmful effects of chemical fertilizers on the environment and humans.

Detection of uidA, stx1, and stx2 Genes in Escherichia coli O157:H7 Isolated from Cattle Faecal Matter and River Water

Cattle can harbour enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 serotype in their faecal matters. This study aimed to isolate E. coli O157:H7 from the intestinal digesta, cattle dungs and water; and assess the antibiotic susceptibility and production of shiga toxins by the isolates. The counts of viable bacteria and faecal coliforms in 13 each of intestinal digesta and cattle dung and the 12 water samples were determined using nutrient agar and Eosin methylene blue agar respectively. Sorbitol MacConkey agar (SMAC) was used to screen for E. coli O157:H7 among the 38 E. coli isolates. PCR amplification of uidA genes was used to authenticate the isolates as enterohaemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 serotype while amplification of stx1 and stx2 showed the production of shiga toxins. The antibiotic susceptibility patterns of the isolates were determined using standard disk diffusion method. The count of viable bacteria and faecal coliform was highest in the intestinal digesta followed by cattle dungs. There was 100% susceptibility to ofloxacin coupled with 100% resistant to augmentin by all the 8 E. coli O157 and 10 non-O157 isolates. The E. coli O157 isolates were more susceptible to ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, ampicillin and cefuroxime than non-O157 isolates but were less susceptible to nitrofurantoin and ceftazidime than non-O157. Eight (44.4%) out of the 18 presumptive E. coli O157 on SMAC amplified uidA genes and were confirmed as E. coli O157. They were isolated only from intestinal digesta and cattle dung. The prevalence of stx1 and stx2 genes among the E. coli O157 was 37.5% and 12.5% respectively. It is concluded from this study that intestinal digesta and cattle dung harboured E. coli O157: H7 some of which possessed shiga toxin.

Evaluation of physicochemical and microbiological quality of drinking water in the distribution system of Dharan, Nepal

Dharan has been facing drinking water-related problems for a very long time now and this research was conducted in order to determine whether the quality of water being distributed throughout the city was one of them. Hence, 31 samples were taken from the drinking water distribution system of Dharan in the spring of 2022 for evaluating the physicochemical and microbiological quality of drinking water being distributed across the sub-metropolitan city. Though public knowledge and adequate management of watershed and reservoir premises were insufficient, the physicochemical characteristics were determined to be within the National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) for drinking water with temperatures ranging from 23.6 °C to 25.6 °C, pH 7.7 to 8.5, conductivity 38.2 to 38.7 µS/cm, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 7.7 to 9.0 mg/L, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 0.8 to 1.8 mg/L, chloride 29.82 to 34.08 mg/L, nitrite 10 mg/L and ammonia <0.5 mg/L. However, the coliform bacteria levels were significant, with the highest TCC (Total Coliform Count) being 137 CFU/100mL, the highest FCC (Fecal Coliform Count) being 85 CFU/100mL and the highest TPC (Total Plate Count) being TMTC (Too Many To Count). The water was found to be unsafe to drink without disinfection treatments. It may be necessary to carry out treatment procedures like chlorination as advised by WHO (World Health Organization) as soon as possible while also taking into account the proper application of filtration techniques for distributing safe drinking water to the residents of Dharan.

Microbial risk assessment and health concern of vegetables irrigated with Akaki River in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

BackgroundThe consumption of vegetables is increasing in Ethiopia because of their high health benefits. Smallholder farmers who use water from the Akaki River for irrigation meet more than 60% of the vegetable needs of Addis Ababa. However, the Akaki River is severely polluted by anthropogenic impacts. Hence, the intake of vegetables grown in fecally contaminated water can lead to many health problems. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate microbial contamination of irrigation water and vegetables in Addis Ababa. MethodsThis study assessed the quality of water and vegetables collected from the Akaki River. Fresh vegetables, such as Ethiopian kale, lettuce, cabbage, and spinach, were collected from 14 farmlands during the dry and wet seasons. The analysis of E. coli non-E. coli, total coliform (TC), fecal coliform (FC), and total aerobic plate count (TAC) were determined using standard methods. ResultsThe findings of this study indicated that all fresh vegetables were contaminated with total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and total aerobic plate counts in both dry and wet seasons. The overall mean counts of E. coli and non-E. coli in the water samples were 2.09 and >3.48 log10 CFU 10 mL−1, respectively. The mean counts of TC, FC, and TAC on the sampled vegetables were 3.22, 1.37, and 4.72 in the dry season, and 3.87, 2.57, and 5.09 log10 CFU per gram in the wet season, respectively. ConclusionThe Akaki River has been contaminated with non-E. Coli & E. coli coliforms, and did not meet the WHO guideline criteria for safe irrigation. The microbial contamination of vegetables was found to be high and exceeded the hazard analysis and critical control points for total quality management (HACCPTQM) and International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Food (ICMSF) limits for safe consumption. Therefore, the local government is responsible for ensuring that farmers can use pollution-reducing irrigation systems and that consumers are aware of the health risks of contaminated vegetables and take appropriate precautions.

Isolation and Characterization of Resistant Bacterial Species Isolated From Shallow Well Water Situated Close to Graves as a Public Health Menace in Osogbo, Osun State

This study was designed to evaluate the physicochemical and bacteriological qualities of well water situated close to graves. Total heterotrophic bacterial count (THBC), total coliform count (TCC) and fecal coliform count (FC) were done on nutrient agar, MacConkey and Eosine methylene blue agar, respectively, using spread plate method at incubation conditions of 37℃ for 24 hours for THBC and TCC whereas 44.5℃ for 24-48 hours for fecal coliforms. Membrane filtration was used for Vibrio spp. count on TCBS agar while conventional biochemical method was performed for bacterial identification. Isolated bacteria were subjected for antimicrobial resistant testing using 8 families of antibiotics. Bacteria with MAR index value of ≥75 were sent for genomic identification and sequencing. The average value of the ten water samples analyzed over the period of study had high total suspended solids (mg/l), phosphate (mg/l); magnesium ion (mg/l) contents and a very low dissolved oxygen mg/L content. The THB count was (5.0×107-1.35×108 CFU/ml), TCC count (3.55×105- 1.04×106 CFU/ml), FC count (2.10×105-6.90×105 CFU/ml) while Vibrio spp. count was 45-144 CFU/100 ml and the MPN estimated reading for coliform was also high. The percentage occurrence and MAR index value of the bacteria isolated from the well water, respectively were Vibrio spp. 23%; 75, Klebsiella spp. 20%; 100, Bacillus spp. 14%; 100, Staphylococcus spp. 14%; 62.5, E. coli 12%; 62.5, Pseudomonas spp. 12%; 75, Glycomyces spp. 3%; 100 and Proteus spp. 3%; 50. The closeness of the well to the grave makes the decomposing leachates with high organic, inorganic, biological and poisonous metals sink into the underground aquifers. Stamford Journal of Microbiology, Vol.12 (1) 2022: 47-53

Bacteriological load and antibiotic susceptibility patterns of bacterial isolates from aquatic resources harvested from Okwan Obolo estuary, Akwa Ibom State

This study was conducted to determine bacteriological load and antibiotic susceptibility profile of isolates from aquatic resources harvested from Okwan Obolo estuary, Akwa Ibom state, using standard microbiological techniques. The aquatic resources used were the fresh land crab (Gecarinus quadratus), Pallid Ghost crab (Ocypode pallidulla) and fishes (Sadinella maderensis) samples. The bacterial load of each sample was determined using serial dilution and pour plating techniques. Antibiotic sensitivity test was conducted using Kirby-Bauer Agar-disc diffusion method. The results indicated the highest mean of total heterotrophic bacterial counts(THBC), total Vibrio count (TVC), total coliform count (TCC) and total fecal coliform count(TFCC) ranges of 1.15 x105 CFU/g, 4.9x105 CFU/g 6.9 x105 CFU/g, 5.25 x105 CFU/g for Gecarinus quadratus 1, 1.16 x105 CFU/g, 4.4 x105 CFU/g, 6.5 x105 CFU/g, 5.75 x105 CFU/g for Ocypode pallidulla 1. Mean bacterial load from different anatomical sites of Sadinella maderensis ranged from 4.1 x 105 CFU/g, 1.6 x 105 CFU/g, 3.3 x 105 CFU/g and 2.6x 105 CFU/g for Sadinella maderensis1, 4.4 x 105 CFU/g, 2.6x 105 CFU/g, 2.8x 105 CFU/g, 2.0 x 105 CFU/g for Sadinella maderensis2 respectively. The isolates recovered were Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp, Micrococcus spp, Coagulase- negative Staphylococcus (CON Staphylococcus), Bacillus spp, Enterobacter spp, Pseudomonas spp and Proteus species. However, guts samples had the highest number of bacterial loads and isolates. Staphylococcus aureus had the highest percentage of occurrence (14.1%), closely followed by Escherichia coli and Micrococcus spp (12.5%) respectively. All the isolates recorded 100% sensitivity to amoxicillin-clavulanic antibiotics. CON Staphylococcus and Proteus spp recorded 100% sensitivity to all drugs tested while Escherichia coli recorded 100% to imipenem, gentamicin, ceftriazole and amoxicillin-clauvalanic antibiotics respectively. Proper cooking of aquatic resources is encouraged, and good water quality should be maintained in the estuary.

Hygiene, sanitation facility, and assessment of drinking water quality in the schools of Chattogram city, Bangladesh

ObjectiveThis study is designed to evaluate the microbiological safety concern of drinking water of the 50 schools of Chattogram city, Bangladesh, and to investigate the sanitation and hygiene conditions of the schools, which are directly related to the health of thousands of students. MethodsIn this study, pour plate method used for total viable count (TVC), most probable number (MPN) method used for the total coliform count (TCC) and fecal coliform count (FCC), and four selective media used to isolate pathogenic bacteria from drinking water samples, and then identified by using morphological, cultural, and biochemical tests. To investigate the water, sanitation, and hygiene conditions a structured questionnaire was used. ResultsA total of 46% samples were found above the acceptable limit (> 500 CFU/ml) for TVC count, 52% samples had coliform, and 28% samples had fecal coliform, which exceeded the WHO guideline value. We categorized 50 studied schools into five groups and found the highest TVC (67%) and TCC (83%) in the water samples of city corporation schools. E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, and Yersinia were isolated and identified from drinking water samples. In most schools, drinking water reservoirs were found impure and contaminated by various bacteria. In government primary schools, a toilet is used by 143 students, whereas in private English medium schools, a toilet is used by 30 students and found clean. Hand-washing soap was supplied in only 14% of government primary schools, but 100% in private English medium schools. ConclusionOur findings suggest that drinking water in most of the schools was found contaminated by pathogens. Poor hygiene, sanitation, and contaminated drinking water seem responsible for different kinds of diseases. Moreover, this study indicates the necessity for raising awareness about drinking water, hygiene, and sanitation facilities of schools, which should monitor at regular intervals.

Impact of Abattoir Activities on the Physicochemical and Bacteriological Properties of Soil Samples from Choba Slaughter, Rivers State, Nigeria

Slaughtering and processing of animal products at abattoirs generate different waste that may be transported into the nearby water bodies through runoff and other processes. Evaluating the soil characteristics within the abattoir will provide critical information regarding the soil health, for environmental management and health care planning. The aim of the study was therefore to assess the impact of abattoir activities on soil physico-chemical and bacteriological properties. The soil sampling involved five (5) different points, representing regions where the live animals were kept, where the animals were slaughtered, where the animal hides were roasted, where the waste bones were stacked, and a control sample collected 20 meters away from the abattoir site. The result of the physicochemical parameters showed that all the sample points were either higher or lower than that of the control soil sample. Statistical analyses however showed that there was a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the nitrate concentration in the region used for roasting of animal hides and the control sample. The result of Total Heterotrophic Bacterial Count (THBC) showed that the highest value of 7.2 x 108cfu/g was obtained from the location where the animals are slaughtered, while the least value of 1.0 x 108 cfu/g was from the control soil sample. The other bacterial counts varied between 0.8x105 cfu/g and 5.0 x 106 cfu/g; 4.3 x104 cfu/g and 1.0 x105 cfu/g; 3.7x104 cfu/g and 5.6x104 cfu/g, for the Total Coliform Count (TCC), Fecal Coliform Count (FCC), Salmonella and Shigella Counts (SSC), respectively. A total of 28 bacterial isolates were characterized and identified to belong to seven genera, and their percentage prevalence showed that Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp., and E. coli were the most occurring, with a frequency of 21.7% each, followed by Salmonella spp. (13.1 %), Klebsiella spp. (8.7 %), Serratia mercescens (8.7 %) and Shigella spp. (4.4 %). The result of the response of the bacterial isolates to the conventional antibiotics revealed that all the isolates where sensitive to most of the antibiotics tested. This study has shown that abattoir activities have significant influence on the bacteriological and physicochemical characteristics of the soil, thereby accentuating the need for proper waste management.