Fault Damage Research Articles

Structural Uncertainty Due to Fault Timing: A Multimodel Case Study from the Perth Basin.

Faults can fundamentally change a groundwater flow regime and represent a major source of uncertainty in groundwater studies. Much research has been devoted to uncertainty around their location and their barrier-conduit behavior. However, fault timing is one aspect of fault uncertainty that appears to be somewhat overlooked. Many faulted models feature consistent layer offsets, thereby presuming that block faulting has occurred recently and almost instantaneously. Additionally, barrier and/or conduit behavior is often shown to extend vertically through all layers when a fault may in fact terminate well below-ground surface. In this study, we create three plausible geological interpretations for a transect in the Perth Basin. Adjacent boreholes show stratigraphic offsets and thickening which indicate faulting; however, fault timing is unknown. Flow modeling demonstrates that the model with the most recent faulting shows profoundly different flow patterns due to aquifer juxtaposition. Additionally, multiple realizations with stochastically generated parameter sets for layer, fault core, and fault damage zone conductivity show that fault timing influences flow more than layer or fault zone conductivity. Finally, fault conduit behavior that penetrates aquitards has significant implications for transport, while fault barrier behavior has surprisingly little. This research advocates for adequate data collection where faults may cause breaches in aquitards due to layer offsets or conduit behavior in the damage zone. It also promotes the use of multiple geological models to address structural uncertainty, and highlights some of the hurdles in doing so such as computational expense and the availability of seamless geological-flow modeling workflows.

Mechanisms and Seismological Signatures of Rupture Complexity Induced by Fault Damage Zones in Fully‐Dynamic Earthquake Cycle Models

AbstractDamage zones are common around faults, but their effects on earthquake mechanics are still incompletely understood. Here, we investigate how damage affects rupture patterns, source time functions (STF) and ground motions in 2D fully‐dynamic cycle models. We find that back‐propagating rupture fronts emerge in large faults and can be triggered by residual stresses left by previous ruptures or by damage‐induced pulse‐to‐crack transitions. Damage‐induced back‐propagating fronts are modulated by slip rate oscillations, amplify high‐frequency radiation, and sharpen the multiple peaks in STF even in the absence of frictional heterogeneity or fault segmentation. Near‐field ground motion is predominantly controlled by stress heterogeneity left by prior seismicity, and further amplified within the damage zone by trapped waves and outside it by secondary rupture fronts. This study refines our knowledge on damage zone effects on earthquake rupture and identifies their potentially observable signatures in the near and far field.

Directional amplification across the San Jacinto fault zone, CA

SUMMARY The amplitude, frequency and polarization of ground motion at the surface can be affected by the local geology. While low-velocity sediments and fill can amplify ground motions in certain frequency ranges, the low velocities found in fault zones can also produce prominent wavelets. In this paper, we provide further evidence that polarization of ground motion can be affected by the geological fabric in fault zones that have sustained significant brittle deformation. Aside from the well-known effect of fault-trapped waves in the low-velocity zone with polarization azimuths parallel to the fault strike, the effect of stiffness anisotropy was recently recognized with polarization azimuths at high-angle to the fault strike and orthogonal to the locally predominant fracture field in the fault damage zone. To clarify further such features, we investigate directional amplification effects across the San Jacinto fault zone in Southern California using seismic data recorded by permanent seismic stations and dense across-fault arrays. We observe three main polarization trends. The first trend parallel to the fault strike is ascribed to fault-trapped waves along the low-velocity zone, in agreement with several studies in the last decade in the same region. The second and third trends are orthogonal to the orientation of R and T Riedel planes, respectively. They are related to the stiffness anisotropy in densely fractured rocks in the damage zone, which are more compliant orthogonal to their fractures. At some locations the two effects are superimposed, occurring in different and distinct frequency ranges. Directional amplification at rock sites can be important for expected ground motion and seismic hazard. However, in seismic engineering the current prescriptions of seismic codes do not account for amplification effects at rock sites at frequencies of engineering interest.

Deep-seated crustal faults and their role in the thermo-tectonic evolution of an active mountain belt: New evidence from the Northern Andes

Deep-seated structures can exhume deep crustal rocks (>20 km), transmitting the signal of geodynamic processes from the subduction zone to the interiors of the continents. The role of deep-seated structures can be analyzed with low-temperature thermochronological dating techniques. However, studies coupling low-temperature thermochronology with structural geological analyses of the deformational style are not common in the Northern Andes. In this contribution, we present new apatite (AFT) and zircon (ZFT) fission-track data coupled with meso- and microstructural analyses to reveal the deformational and exhumation history of the Santander Massif (SM; Northern Andes) and the related cortical Bucaramanga strike-slip fault (BF). Samples for thermochronological analyses were collected along an elevation profile with a significant elevation difference of 2.4 km across the western flank of the SM, crossing the BF. The time-temperature history modeling of ZFT data reveals phases of prolonged residence in the zircon partial annealing zone from ∼125 to 94 Ma and a cooling phase related to an exhumation episode at around 25 Ma based on samples collected near the BF. Inverse modeling of AFT data reveals structurally-controlled Pliocene exhumation rates of 0.6–0.7 km/Myr mediated by the action of secondary faults. A shift in the deformation style resulting from the oblique interaction of the SM and Mérida Andes domain is interpreted as the main driver of the Pliocene exhumation. This deformation phase is observed in the fault damage zone, where evidence of brittle-ductile deformation was exhumed. Finally, we discuss the geodynamic implications of our thermochronological and structural analyses, contrasting local and more regional competing hypotheses (Pamplona Indenter vs. slab break-off of the Caribbean plate), which may explain the tectonic evolution of the northern part of the Eastern Cordillera and the SM in the Colombian Northern Andes.

Electrically anisotropic structure of the Rocky Mountain Trench near Valemount, British Columbia inferred from magnetotellurics: implications for geothermal exploration

Canoe Reach is a region of high geothermal potential on a segment of the Southern Rocky Mountain Trench fault (SRMTF) with highly metamorphosed and structurally complex wall rocks, near Valemount, British Columbia. This study contains analyses of magnetotelluric data collected at Canoe Reach accounting for electrical anisotropy, which is not often considered during geothermal exploration. Isotropic and anisotropic 3D inversions are used due to signs of electrical anisotropy in the Canoe Reach magnetotelluric data and the presence of visibly anisotropic geological structure. At Canoe Reach North, the anisotropic model is preferred for its simpler structure and consistency with the mapped geology. An anisotropic feature in the footwall of the steeply southwest-dipping SRMTF has a low resistivity in the fault-perpendicular direction and a high resistivity in the vertical direction, which is more easily explained by conductive minerals than by fluids in the highly metamorphosed gneiss. An exploration well in the SRMTF footwall encountered two graphite seams with thicknesses ≥1 m, supporting the interpretation of anisotropic resistivity due to conductive minerals. A strong resistivity contrast across the SRMTF suggests juxtaposition of different lithologies, challenging existing interpretations of SRMTF displacement at Canoe Reach. At Canoe Reach South, anisotropic features near the Canoe River thermal spring with a high resistivity in the fault-perpendicular direction and low resistivity in the vertical direction are consistent with fault core and damage zone models. Magnetotelluric data may be sensitive to permeability anisotropy of fault zones, and the use of electrically anisotropic inversions should be considered for these settings.

Constraining Shear Strength of Fault Damage Zone Using Geodetic Data and Numerical Simulation

AbstractShear strength of damage zone, representing the stress threshold for rupture initiation, is a critical parameter in faulting mechanics. Despite its significance, the damage‐zone's shear strength has not been estimated in natural earthquake ruptures. Here we employed coseismic deformation and strain, kinematic slip model, and finite element modeling to determine the elastic properties and peak shear stress of coseismic damage zones along the 2021 Mw 7.4 Maduo earthquake. Through the analysis of the lowest shear stress resulting in surface ruptures and the highest stress without surface rupture, we constrained the strength within a range of 7–17 MPa. Our result is consistent with strength (5–16 MPa) of sandstone samples from laboratory tests, demonstrating the validity of this estimation. Although factors such as fault maturity and confining pressure influence strength variation, the strength can directly reflect the stress threshold required for macroscopic surface rupture formation in fault damage zones dominated by sandstone.

Impact of fault slip induced by water injection on casing deformation: a numerical study

Fluid injection can cause fault reactivation and slip due to weakened cementation strength. The resulting fault slippage poses significant challenges to wellbore and casing integrity. To address this, we developed a multi-scale 3D finite element model, integrating reservoir, and near-wellbore components and applied to an offshore well in China’s ZD Reservoir, an area that has experienced fault reactivations (and casing deformations of wells intersecting reactivated faults) due to routinely water injection in nearby wells. Based on the actual formation’s wellbore-fault angle, a full-size fault is inserted into the model. The traction–separation law (TSL) describes progressive fault damage induced by waterflooding. The model also simulates the impact of fault slippage on cement failure and casing deformation. Research findings indicate that fluid injection reduces friction and shear cementation strength between faults, leading to reactivated fault slippage. The slip process involves three stages: low-level, sharply rising, and high-level stages, each exhibiting reduced fault friction and shear cementation strength. These outcomes provide insights to prevent casing damage during water flooding, optimizing injection points, or using better cement recipes at minimal cost.

The effects of precursory velocity changes on earthquake nucleation and stress evolution in dynamic earthquake cycle simulations

Seismic velocity changes in earthquake cycles have been observed over a wide range of timescales and may be a good indicator of the onset of future earthquakes. Understanding the effects of precursory velocity changes right before seismic and slow-slip events could potentially elucidate the onset and timing of fault failure. We use numerical models to simulate fully dynamic earthquake cycles in 2D strike-slip fault systems with antiplane geometry, surrounded by a narrow fault-parallel damage zone. By imposing S-wave velocity changes inside fault damage zones, we investigate the effects of these precursors on multiple stages of the seismic cycle, including nucleation, coseismic, postseismic, and interseismic stages. Our modeling results show a wide spectrum of fault slip behaviors including fast earthquakes, slow-slip events, and variable creep. One primary effect of the imposed velocity precursor is on the earthquake nucleation phase, and earlier onset of precursors causes earthquakes to nucleate sooner with a smaller nucleation size that is not predicted by theoretical equations. Furthermore, such precursors affect the nucleation of dynamic earthquakes and slow-slip events. Our results highlight the importance of short- and long-term monitoring of fault zone structures for better assessment of regional seismic hazard.

Fracture analysis and low-temperature thermochronology of faulted Jurassic igneous rocks in the Southern Colombian Andes: Reservoir and tectonic implications

Fractured basement hydrocarbon reservoirs are widely distributed worldwide in more than 30 basins, where volcanic and plutonic rocks have produced significant quantities of oil and gas. The Upper Magdalena Valley Basin (UMVB) is a mature and productive hydrocarbon basin located in the Colombian Andes. In this basin, plutonic and volcaniclastic Jurassic rocks are thrusted on top of Cretaceous to Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, which constitute the petroleum system. Multi-scale fracture analysis together with petrography, petrophysics, and low-temperature thermochronology were conducted in and outcrop analogue of this basement to assess the structural evolution and investigate the main factors controlling the development of fracture properties in igneous basements. Thermochronological data indicate the occurrence of three exhumation events between the Early Cretaceous and Miocene, suggesting that most of the fracture networks within the Agrado-Betania hanging-wall were likely formed before hydrocarbon migration. Structural analysis has identified a fault damage zone with a width of approximately 746 m. Volcanic breccias and ash tuffs exhibit slightly higher areal fracture intensities (P21 > 30 m/m2) compared to plutonic and clastic rocks (P21 < 20 m/m2). Furthermore, the fracture networks exhibit good connectivity, with connection per branch (CB) values exceeding the 1.5 percolation threshold. Petrophysical calculations of matrix-fracture properties indicate high permeabilities (ranging from 1000mD to 10000000mD) and low porosities (<10%). The structural position and the diagenetic transformation of the volcanic rocks are the primary factors controlling fracture intensity in the igneous rocks within the Agrado-Betania fault. Results from this outcrop analogue also show that polyphasic structural histories and the burial history positively influence the quality of fractured basement reservoirs.

Impact and implications of hydrothermal fluids migration in the Frolov hydrocarbon province in West Siberia

Both the prolific source rocks of the Bazhenov Formation and the reservoir-prone units of the Abalak Formation cover most of the West Siberian region. Hydrothermal fluids circulation has been suggested to affect hydrocarbon potential and reservoir properties at some localities of this vast hydrocarbon province. However, integrated studies are currently lacking. Here we present an extensive multidisciplinary study combining regional studies with core logging properties and sample analyses (i.e. geochemistry, petrography, organic geochemistry) to reveal processes related to the hydrothermal activity that affected both formations. We also focus on the factors and implications for secondary unconventional reservoir formation within the deposits from the Kamennaya summit of the Frolov oil and gas region. Three boreholes corresponding to type sections located in different parts of the study area (elevated, transitional and deep) were investigated. The elevated and transitional parts of the basin are adjacent to the weakened contact zones of a granite massif. These tectonic discontinuities acted as conductors for hydrothermal fluids circulation on the area. Lithological and stable isotope studies revealed the presence of intensive hydrothermal secondary alterations in various types in rocks, including massive metasomatic carbonatization, sulfatization, sulfide mineralization and leaching processes. This hydrothermal fluid activity resulted in reservoir formation within siliceous radiolarite layers, while in the deep part of the basin potential reservoirs were completely healed. Organic matter maturity varies in different parts of the basin. We identify several mechanisms related to the various hydrothermal processes that influenced rocks composition, structure and organic matter maturity: (1) A weakened zone located on the periphery of the granite massif in the basin basement is characterized by extensive fault damage zones facilitating the migration of high temperature fluids along deposits during post-sedimentation stages; (2) The thickness, mineral composition of the rocks overlying the basement control fault attenuation and fluid workflow; (3) The fluids composition, their acidity/alkalinity, prompted various changes in rock structure, especially in secondary porosity formation. The identification of various hydrothermal processes and their influence on pore space allowed to determine the approach for the spatial distribution prediction of unconventional reservoirs in the studied formations, and subsequently improve the efficiency and effectivity of the exploration process not only at the Kamennaya summit, but also on the other similar West Siberian basin areas.

Diagenesis and lateral sealing types of fault zones in the Lishu Depression, Songliao Basin, NE China

The Lishu Depression in the Songliao Basin is characterized by well-developed faults, and the accumulation of oil and gas is closely related to fault sealing. However, there remains a dearth of comprehensive investigation into the diagenesis of fault zones and their influence on lateral sealing. This study employed electron probe analysis, cathodoluminescence, and carbon and oxygen isotope techniques to investigate the diagenetic processes in fault zones. This research also reconstructed the evolution of porosity and displacement pressure of fault rocks, and identified the lateral sealing characteristics of fault zones and their impact on oil and gas accumulation. The majority of faults in the study region formed earlier, and the fault zones experienced intricate diagenesis, characterized by compaction, cementation, replacement, and dissolution. The displacement pressure of fault rocks is higher during fault intermittent and static periods compared to active periods, and it is influenced by diagenesis. Late-stage calcite and pore-filling chlorite were deposited subsequent to the period of fault activity, filling dissolution pores. This led to relatively higher displacement pressure and improved lateral sealing of fault zone. The kaolinite cement exhibits a relatively elevated potassium concentration, due to its connection with the dissolution of feldspar, resulting in lower displacement pressure and poor sealing of fault zone. Based on the evolutionary characteristics of displacement pressure in fault rock and reservoir during various transportation stages, this study identified six types of lateral sealing of fault zones. Notably, the sealing types characterized by "fault core and damage zone sealing during static periods" and "fault core and damage zone sealing during intermittent and static periods" exhibit superior lateral sealing properties, effectively controlling the accumulation of oil and gas in the sand bodies on either side of the fault zone.

Fault-scale crustal structure across the Dunhua-Mishan fault (Tanlu northern segment) constrained from teleseismic P-wave receiver functions

The Dunhua-Mishan fault, located in the northern segment of the Tanlu fault zone, experienced multiple tectonic processes associated with the effects of the Pacific Plate subduction and the Indo-Asia collision. The high-resolution fault-scale structure is critical for understanding the fault evolution and potential fault damage. However, the well-defined deep structure of the Dunhua-Mishan fault is still unclear due to the lack of the dense seismic array. In this study, we construct a high-resolution P-wave receiver function imaging based on linear dense seismic array across the fault. Our results reveal the strong Moho depth variation across the Dunhua-Mishan fault zone. The slightly higher Vp/Vs ratio values within the fault zone indicate the presence of a small amount of mafic crust composition. Interestingly, the significant double positive Ps converted phases are observed within the fault zone, which may represent double Moho discontinuities. The double Moho structure may be related to multiple significant tectonic activities in the Tanlu northern segment. These newly observed structures provide new seismic constraints on the formation and evolution of the Tanlu fault zone and probably reflect that the lithospheric structure of the Dunhua-Mishan fault has been modified by a series of tectonic processes.

Intermittent Criticality Multi‐Scale Processes Leading to Large Slip Events on Rough Laboratory Faults

AbstractWe discuss data of three laboratory stick‐slip experiments on Westerly Granite samples performed at elevated confining pressure and constant displacement rate on rough fracture surfaces. The experiments produced complex slip patterns including fast and slow ruptures with large and small fault slips, as well as failure events on the fault surface producing acoustic emission bursts without externally‐detectable stress drop. Preparatory processes leading to large slips were tracked with an ensemble of ten seismo‐mechanical and statistical parameters characterizing local and global damage and stress evolution, localization and clustering processes, as well as event interactions. We decompose complex spatio‐temporal trends in the lab‐quake characteristics and identify persistent effects of evolving fault roughness and damage at different length scales, and local stress evolution approaching large events. The observed trends highlight labquake localization processes on different spatial and temporal scales. The preparatory process of large slip events includes smaller events marked by confined bursts of acoustic emission activity that collectively prepare the fault surface for a system‐wide failure by conditioning the large‐scale stress field. Our results are consistent overall with an evolving process of intermittent criticality leading to large failure events, and may contribute to improved forecasting of large natural earthquakes.

Decomposing significant factors of Coulomb stress and its components in injection-induced seismicity

Injection-induced seismicity has been a focus of industry for decades as it poses great challenges to the associated risk mitigation and hazard assessment. The response surface methodology is integrated into the geo-mechanical model to analyze the effects of multiple factors on induced seismicity during the post shut-in period. We investigate the roles of poroelastic stress and pore pressure diffusion and examine the differences in the controlling mechanism between fault damage zones and the fault core. A sensitivity analysis is conducted to rank the selected factors, followed by a Box‒Behnken design to form response surfaces and formulate prediction models for the Coulomb stress and its components. Reservoir properties significantly affect the potentials of induced seismicity in the fault by changing pore pressure diffusion, which can be influenced by other factors to varying degrees. Coulomb stress is greater in pressurized damage zones than in fault cores, and the seismicity rate exhibits a consistent variation. Poroelastic stress plays a similar role to pore pressure diffusion in the stability of the fault within the pressurized damage zones. However, pore pressure diffusion dominates in the fault core due to the low rigidity, which limits the accumulation of elastic energy caused by poroelastic coupling. The slip along the fault core is a critical issue to consider. The potential for induced seismicity is reduced in the right damage zones as the pore pressure diffusion is blocked by the low-permeability fault core. However, poroelastic stressing still occurs, and in deep basements, the poroelastic effect is dominant even without a direct increase in pore pressure. The findings in this study reveal the fundamental mechanisms behind injection-induced seismicity and provide guidance for optimizing injection schemes in specific situations.

Rupture Dynamics of Cascading Earthquakes in a Multiscale Fracture Network

AbstractFault‐damage zones comprise multiscale fracture networks that may slip dynamically and interact with the main fault during earthquake rupture. Using 3D dynamic rupture simulations and scale‐dependent fracture energy, we examine dynamic interactions of more than 800 intersecting multiscale fractures surrounding a listric fault, emulating a major listric fault and its damage zone. We investigate 10 distinct orientations of maximum horizontal stress, probing the conditions necessary for sustained slip within the fracture network or activating the main fault. Additionally, we assess the feasibility of nucleating dynamic rupture earthquake cascades from a distant fracture and investigate the sensitivity of fracture network cascading rupture to the effective normal stress level. We model either pure cascades or main fault rupture with limited off‐fault slip. We find that cascading ruptures within the fracture network are dynamically feasible under certain conditions, including: (a) the fracture energy scales with fracture and fault size, (b) favorable relative pre‐stress of fractures within the ambient stress field, and (c) close proximity of fractures. We find that cascading rupture within the fracture network discourages rupture on the main fault. Our simulations suggest that fractures with favorable relative pre‐stress, embedded within a fault damage zone, may lead to cascading earthquake rupture that shadows main fault slip. We find that such off‐fault events may reach moment magnitudes up to Mw ≈ 5.5, comparable to magnitudes that can be otherwise hosted by the main fault. Our findings offer insights into physical processes governing cascading earthquake dynamic rupture within multiscale fracture networks.

Multi-stage fault formation and REE distribution in the surrounding Devonian dolomites in the south-eastern part of the Holy Cross Mountains (Poland)

Metallogenic studies carried out in the Holy Cross Mountains indicate a relationship between mineralization and fault tectonics in Devonian formations. The impact of fault formation on the geochemistry of host rocks has not yet been studied. Mineralogical and geochemical studies of fault core gouges and damage zones in the fault walls of Devonian dolomites in the Budy and Jurkowice quarries were carried out. In the clay-carbonate filling of the fault fissure, the presence of two generations of Fe sulfides, the increased content of Zr, Nb, U and Th in relation to the surrounding rocks was noted. In the fault walls of the dolomites, iron sulfide and hematite mineralization were found. Research on the REE content indicates that it is lower in the fault walls than in those located far from it, while it is clearly higher in the fault gouge, especially in terms of the content of “heavy” elements (HREE). This indicates both the supply of some components to the fault zone from external sources and their displacement from the surrounding rocks. It was also found that the fault was renewed before and after the Neogene at least twice (Badenian)

Time‐Dependent Deformation in the Damage Zone of the Chelungpu Fault System and Potential Stress Relaxation

AbstractHigh fracture density in fault damage zones not only reduces the elastic stiffness of rocks but may also promote time‐dependent bulk deformation through the sliding of fracture and thus alter the stress in fault zones. On comparing the damage zones of the three faults in the Chelungpu fault system encountered in the Taiwan Chelungpu fault Drilling Project (TCDP), the youngest damage zone showed pronounced sonic velocity reduction even though fracture density is the same for all three fault zones, consistent with the shorter time for velocity recovery in the youngest fault. Caliper log data showed a time‐dependent enlargement of the borehole wall at the damage zone. These damage zones record lower differential stress than the surrounding host rock, which cannot be explained by the reduced elastic stiffness in the damage zone. Stress relaxation caused by time‐dependent bulk deformation in the damage zone may be responsible for the observed low differential stress.

Deciphering the low-frequency seismic signals in the Weiyuan Shale gas field: implications for reservoir and structural heterogeneity

SUMMARY Hydraulic fracturing (HF) often stimulates the local earthquake productivity which provides a unique opportunity to characterize the crustal heterogeneities, reservoir properties and fluid injection effects. However, the velocity models acquired solely based on the arrival time records are often undermined due to the seismic network coverage and interpolation techniques. Instead, we adopt the waveform-based approach to apprehend; (1) structural heterogeneities, (2) reservoir distribution and (3) signatures of the injected fluid in the Weiyuan shale gas field. We categorize the waveforms into dominant high and low frequencies based on the qualitative inspection and frequency index analysis of the seismic waveforms. We first inspect the waveform to access the potential controlling mechanisms (source, site and path effects) at both single and multiple stations in different azimuthal orientations. As a result, we find the path effect as a dominant factor to influence the waveform characteristics, for example S-wave amplitude, and frequency. Subsequently, to localize the path effect, we conduct an in-depth examination of events within 10 km of each seismic station and classify the waveform records using their frequency indices. Notably, certain stations record a significant proportion of low-frequency waveforms (LFWs, up to 20 per cent), while others have limited occurrences (∼1 per cent) indicating suspected anomalous zones. Afterward, we identify two suspected anomalous zones based on LFWs intensity and ray tracing map. Both zones are in close proximity to fault zones and preserved reservoirs with no HF activities, where fault damage zones or the fluid-rich reservoir may contribute to our observed LFWs.

Rolling bearing fault diagnosis based on variational mode decomposition and weighted multidimensional feature entropy fusion

Since bearing fault signal in complex running status is usually characterized as nonlinear and non-stationary, it is difficult to extract accurate affluent features and achieve effective fault identification via conventional signal processing tools. In this article, a rolling bearing fault diagnosis technique based on variational mode decomposition and weighted multidimensional feature entropy fusion is proposed to address this issue, which is mainly composed of three procedures. First, the original signal undergoes the variational model decomposition. Next, the signal features are extracted by weighted multidimensional feature entropy as the input of the diagnosis model. Finally, the classification is performed by a convolutional neural network. The method is applied in simulation and experimental analysis. The experimental results show that the proposed method, which demonstrates strong immunity to noise and robustness, can more effectively and adaptively extract the fault features of rolling bearings and achieve the goal of identifying the rolling bearing fault category and damage degree under variable operating conditions. Meanwhile, this approach exhibits superior accuracy and identification performance to some similar entropy-based hybrid approaches referred to in this article, with a promising prospect in industrial application.

Asymmetrical Microfracture Density Across an Active Thrust Fault: Evidence from the Longmen Shan Fault, Eastern Tibet

Abstract Microfracture density in fault damage zones can reflect spatial variability that decays in intensity as a function of distance from the fault, which is crucial in understanding the mechanical, seismological, and fluid-flow properties of the fault system. However, few studies explored the characteristics of fracture density between the two sides of active dip-slip faults due to rare field observations. Here, we measured and modeled microfractures across an active thrust fault associated with the 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake in the Longmen Shan, eastern Tibetan Plateau. The results showed that the microfracture density at the Qingping site developed more intensely in the hanging wall than in the footwall for an exposed thrust fault, indicating an asymmetrical pattern. The hidden thrust fault at the Jushui site showed that microfractures developed more intensely in vertical planes in the hanging wall than in the footwall, whereas microfractures developed similarly in horizontal planes within the two sides, indicating a quasiasymmetrical pattern. Comparing the data at the two sites with computational modeling, we suggest that fault geometry might exert a first-order control of the asymmetrical microfracture density pattern, which is helpful for revealing different deformational behaviors of rock masses in the fault damage zones and better understanding the hanging-wall effect for evaluating seismic hazards on active thrust faults.