Fatty Matter Research Articles

Olive mill wastewater treatment using coagulation/flocculation and filtration processes

Olive mill wastewater (OMWW), a pollutant resulting from the olive oil industry, poses a serious ecological challenge due to its high pollution load. This effluent is highly concentrated in chemical oxygen demand (COD), which is 200 times higher than that of sewage wastewater. Moreover, OMWW is characterized by a strong acidity, high content of fatty matter, and high concentration of phenolic compounds.In this study, coagulation/flocculation and filtration processes were investigated in order to decrease the pollution load of OMWW for potential reuse in olive orchard irrigation. First, two successive coagulation/flocculation steps were applied to a centrifuged OMWW. Lime and aluminum sulfate (alum) were used as coagulants by testing different concentrations in order to select optimal conditions. Then, the efficiency of various filtration systems using activated carbon and/or natural materials (olive stones, olive leaves, sand, celite, and gravel) was tested. pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total solid (TS), and COD were measured before and after each treatment step (coagulation or filtration). Five phenolic compounds were monitored before and after applying the selected treatment steps under optimal conditions. The quantification and valorization of the sludge derived from coagulation/flocculation were also performed.During the first coagulation/flocculation step, the results showed that the application of 8 g/L of lime combined with 7 g/L of alum allows the removal rates for EC, TS, and COD of approximately 10%, 41%, and 48%, respectively. While the application of 5 g/L of lime and 4 g/L of alum during the second coagulation/flocculation step allows for lower reductions rates for TS (37%) and higher reduction rates for COD (67%). In addition, the resulting sludge showed its potential usage as a solid alternative fuel with a calorific value of 3295.79 cal/g. Moreover, filtration using activated carbon and gravel was found to be the optimum filtration system. The reduction rates were 51%, 37%, and 26% for EC, TS, and COD, respectively.Finally, the combination of coagulation/flocculation and filtration allows the substantial elimination of the studied phenolic compounds with global reduction yields of 97% for vanillyl alcohol, 92% for tyrosol, and 91% for vanillic acid and p-coumaric acid.Besides, Mediterranean countries are suffering from water shortages and the majority of olive mill trituration units are known for their artisanal types thus facing economic challenges. This research suggests a practical treatment process and the final effluent can be used to irrigate olive orchards at a rate of 170 m3 per hectare.

A Review on Formulation of Body Lotion

The body is shielded by protective layers of skin. A plant-based herbal body lotion provides soothing hydration. Common ingredients often feature aloe vera, known for its healing properties, pain relief, and moisture retention. For centuries, it has been used to treat skin burns and wounds. Aloe vera, honey, glycerin, rose water, and triethanolamine were selected for the formulation of the herbal body lotion. Evaluation parameters were conducted to ensure that the formulation is safe for human use. The aloe vera body lotion was created using these ingredients, which include aloe vera known for its antimicrobial and hydrating properties, protecting the skin from microbial damage while providing moisture. In conclusion, this herbal body lotion is designed for topical application. Aloe vera enhances the lotion's synergistic and moisturizing effects on the skin. Herbal remedies are gaining worldwide popularity, and the combination of aloe vera, honey, coconut oil, Lavender oil, and glycerin in this formulation is an excellent approach. These formulations were assessed using various evaluation parameters, including homogeneity, appearance, after-feel, acid value, pH measurement, irritancy test, viscosity, accelerated stability testing, subjective properties, spreadability, type of emulsion test, sensitivity test, washability test, statistical analysis, in vitro permeation studies, thermal stability tests, total fatty matter determination, water content analysis, and patch tests. The aim of this review is to compile information on different herbal lotion formulations and their evaluations. Numerous researchers have studied herbal lotion formulations, and this knowledge can assist other researchers in developing novel herbal cosmetic formulations featuring new ingredients.

Using solid waste from the leather tanning industry to produce a mixed calcium/zinc thermal stabilizer for polyvinyl chloride

The leather tanning industry has historically posed considerable environmental challenges owing to the substantial solid waste it produces. This study examines innovative uses for the solid waste generated by this sector, focusing on the waste from the fleshing process. Our research involved extracting fat from fleshing waste, synthesizing Ca and Zn carboxylates from the extracted fat, and assessing their effectiveness as a combined Ca/Zn thermal stabilizer for polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The synthesized Ca and Zn carboxylates contained 6.4% Ca and 11.4% Zn, respectively, while the total fatty matter was determined to be 86.2% and 88.5%, respectively. Thermal analysis indicated that both carboxylates remained stable up to 200 °C. Tests on dehydrochlorination and roll milling revealed that the mixed Ca/Zn thermal stabilizer effectively improved the thermal stability of PVC resin. It also showed a synergistic effect when combined with pentaerythritol, enhancing its overall efficacy. The synthesized mixed Ca/Zn thermal stabilizer exhibited thermal stabilizing properties and flowability comparable to those of mixed Ca/Zn stearate, a widely used thermal stabilizer for PVC. These results suggest that fleshing fat could serve as a valuable raw material in the production of mixed Ca/Zn-based PVC thermal stabilizers.

Extraction, FTIR and GC-MS characterization of palm kernel oil for laundry soap production

This study aimed at extracting and characterizing palm kernel oil from oil palm seed for laundry soap production. Palm kernel oil was obtained by Soxhlet extraction with n-hexane. Standard methods were used to determine the physicochemical properties of the kernel oil and laundry soap. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were used to characterize the oil. Results revealed that the palm kernel seed yielded 45.51±1.10% oil. Relative density, saponification value, acid value, and iodine value of the oil were 0.87±0,034 g/mL, 224.40±3.13 mg KOH/g, 3.25±0.11 mgKOH/g, and 14.72±0.25 gI2/100g, respectively. FTIR spectrum showed absorption peaks of methylene groups (723, 2855, 2922 cm–1), carbonyl group (1744 cm–1), and olefin group (1632 cm–1) which are characteristics of fatty acids. GC-MS analysis showed oleic acid, trans-13-octadecenoic acid, elaidic acid, petroselinic acid and vaccenic acid. Quality parameters of the white and hard palm kernel oil soap were found to be 9.55±0.43, 5.20±0.48 cm, 9.65±0.97% and 72.50±2.34% for the pH, foam height, moisture content, and total fatty matter, respectively. These findings suggest that FTIR and GC-MS can substantially be used to effectively verify the suitability of a vegetable oil for soap production. Finally, the moderately high oil yield of the kernel seed indicates its potential for large-scale soap production in Nigeria considering the country’s position as the world’s 4th largest producer of palm kernel oil.

Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Characterization of Arachis Oil for Production of Laundry Soap

The study aimed to extract oil from Arachis seeds (Arachis hypogaea), characterize the oil with FTIR and GC-MS, and use it to produce laundry soap. Arachis oil was extracted via the Soxhlet method in nhexane. Standard methods were adopted to examine the properties of the extracted oil, and the produced laundry soap. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to analyze the chemical composition of the oil. The results showed that 70.0 g of the Arachis seed gave 49.56±1.24 % oil yield. The physicochemical characterization of the oil showed that the relative density, saponification value, acid value, and iodine value were 0.65±0.15 g/mL, 190.74±2.17 mgKOH/g, 2.08±0.15 mgKOH/g, and 91.88±0.25 gI2/100g, respectively. Functional groups analysis from FTIR data revealed unique absorption peaks of methyl group at 1379 cm–1, methylene group at 723, 1461, 2847, 2922 cm–1, carbonyl group at 1744 cm–1, and olefin group at 1654 cm–1, which are attributed to the fatty acids present in the Arachis oil. The GC-MS analysis confirmed the following fatty acids: Oleic acid, Elaidic acid, and Vaccenic acid in the oil. The soap’s quality parameters determination offered 99.75±0.26 cm, 4.63±0.37 cm, 7.10±0.78 % and 59.25±2.65 % for pH, foam height, moisture content and total fatty matter, respectively. Besides, the soap was slightly pinkish and moderately hard. The findings of the study proved that Arachis seeds oil is a richsource of fatty acids with the required functional groups for efficient saponification reaction, and has a huge potential for large-scale production of quality laundry soap.

Utilizing Used Cooking Oil and Organic Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Soap Production

This research examined the potential for utilizing waste materials generated during the production of dishes/meals and organic waste. Specifically, it evaluated the use of orange peel (OP), spent coffee grounds (SCG), and waste cooking oil in the production of soaps. For the purposes of this study, homemade soaps were made from used food oils using the cold saponification method using sodium hydroxide. During the soap preparation, spent coffee grounds and orange peel were added to the samples in increasing concentrations of 1%, 2.5%, and 5%. The quality of the individual types of homemade soaps was evaluated on the basis of physicochemical properties such as pH, moisture, total alkalinity, total fatty matter, malondialdehyde content, fat content, foaminess, and hardness. All soaps produced using the cooking oil met the ISO quality criteria and reveal a high TFM content, low moisture content, and also very good foam stability and satisfactory foaming stability. However, no relationship was observed between the use of OP and SCG in soap production and these parameters. However, according to the ABTS test, OP and SCG significantly contributed to the antioxidant properties of the soaps, while SCG-impregnated soaps performed slightly better in this respect. Soaps with SCG also had the highest levels of flavonoids. On the other hand, the fillers used for the soap formulation reduced their hardness. All soaps showed 100% solubility in water, thus confirming the biodegradability of the product. This study demonstrated the novel potential of incorporating waste products like orange peel, spent coffee grounds, and waste cooking oil into homemade soaps, highlighting their contributions to its antioxidant properties and water solubility while ensuring high quality standards.

Chemical Composition and Acceptability of Organic Bath Soap among Students in Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria

The study determined the chemical composition and acceptability of organic bath soap among students in Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria. The study was guided by two research questions. Mixed method research design was used for the study. Population was 46 which comprised all Home Economics students from the Department of Vocational Education. In-home use questionnaire was used for data collection. The study produced two samples of turmeric bath soap. Findings showed that the chemical compositions of the turmeric soap samples are in accordance with the specifications of the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) with toilet soap specifications of pH ranging from 9 to 11, total fatty matter ranging from 60-75 gm and total free caustic soda ranging from 0.05 to 0.08 %. Findings showed that the sensory evaluation attributes for colour, smell, consistency foam ability and skin sensitivity were accepted after use for three months as the samples were skin friendly, safe to use without side effects. It was recommended that turmeric body soap and turmeric face gel can be produced in large quantities for commercial purpose as a form of income generation for unemployed graduates.

Chemical characteristics of soaps obtained using red hot pepper seeds oil (Capsicum annuum L.)

Vegetable oils are an important raw material for soap production. They are widely distributed in nature, but only some of them are used in soap production. The search for alternative raw materials for oils from renewable sources is current worldwide. As a potential source of such oil, hot pepper seeds are considered. They are waste plant products that contain proteins, dietary fiber, lipids, minerals, bioactive compounds, etc. This study aimed to identify the optimal amount of hot pepper seed oil to include in the oil blend for cold process soap making. Four variations of soaps were made with hot pepper seeds oil, palm oil and coconut oil in different ratios. The values of indicators – total fatty matter content, free alkali, foaming ability, pH were determined. Soaps containing up to 10 % hot pepper seeds oil in the oil blend exhibit satisfactory quality characteristics. The findings indicate that hot pepper seeds oil is suitable for use in cold process soap making. Its proportion can be as high as 10 % of the total oils.

Physico-Chemical Parameterization of some Commercially Available Toilets and Laundry Soaps in Tansen, Palpa

Nepalese market has witnessed an impressive upsurge in the production and consumption of a variety of soaps in recent times since 2022 after covid pandemic. The physicochemical parameterization determines the quality, competency and cleaning properties of soap so that we urge sagacious use of these soaps to keep skin healthy. Due to scant knowledge about the quality of soaps, there is need to assess them. Ten parameters namely foam height, surface tension, pH, moisture content, conductance, total fatty matter, total alkali, free caustic alkali and chloride content of commercially available toilet (Dettol, Lifebuoy, Liril, Lux, No.1, Haldi Kanti, Neem Kanti and Neem Chiuri) and laundry soap (Aaha, Darshan, Dhoni and Xpert) samples collected from local market of Tansen were determined using different standard documented method of analysis. The physicochemical parameters examined in collected different soap samples are found as; foam height (20-120) ml, surface tension (38.857-67.192) dynes/cm, pH (6.67-10.54), moisture content (6.68-34.40) %, conductance (115-327) µs/cm, Total Fatty Matter or T.F.M. (42-85.10) %, total alkali (0.31-1.178) %, free caustic alkali (0.54-0.91) % and chloride content (0.1-0.69) %, indicating most of examined parameters for soap were in standard limit as quality criteria set by Bureau of Indian Standards, IS 286: 1978 except that of free caustic alkali content in laundry soaps. This study has recommended public to use toilet soap for bathing purpose as it removes dirt more and laundry soap are found to have good cleansing action for clothes.

Southern African plants used as soap substitutes; phytochemical, antimicrobial, toxicity and formulation potential

A major proportion of the population in southern Africa relies on medicinal plants, commonly known as soapy plants, for bathing and washing; however, there is limited scientific evidence that validates the effectiveness of southern African soap plants. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the phytochemistry, antimicrobial activity, and toxicity of plants used in southern Africa as soap substitutes. Thereafter, an effective antimicrobial herbal soap was formulated and assessed for antimicrobial efficacy. Plant selection was based on a comprehensive ethnobotanical literature review that was conducted to gather information on plants used as soap substitutes in southern Africa. A total of 29 plant extracts (26 plant species) were screened for antimicrobial activity against 16 relevant skin pathogens. The minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) assay was used to assess antimicrobial activity. The plant extracts were quantitatively screened for the presence of saponins. Furthermore, the plant extracts were also assessed for toxicity using the brine shrimp lethality assay (BSLA). Calodendrum capense (L.f.) Thunb., Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L'Hér. and Ptaeroxylon obliquum (Thunb.) Radlk. demonstrated notable broad-spectrum activity against most of the tested pathogens. Hermannia cuneifolia Jacq. displayed the highest saponin content (262.41 ± 1.90 mg/g), followed by Sideroxylon inerme L. subsp. inerme (71.34 ± 1.01 mg/ml), Acalypha glabrata Thunb. (70.48 ± 2.05 mg/g), and Noltea africana (L.) Endl. (68.53 ± 2.43 mg/g). Acalypha glabrata, Aloe maculata All., Bauhinia bowkeri Harv., Deinbollia oblongifolia (E. Mey. ex Arn.) Radlk., Ledebouria luteola Jessop., Pouzolzia mixta Sohm, and S. inerme subsp. inerme organic and aqueous extracts demonstrated the lowest toxic effects at 24 and 48 h. Calodendrum capense and Ptaeroxylon obliquum organic extracts were non-toxic at 500 μg/ml, and Pelargonium peltatum displayed low toxicity at a concentration of 125 μg/ml. Calodendrum capense, Pelargonium peltatum and Ptaeroxylon obliquum were selected as the three most favourable plants for soap formulation. Pelargonium peltatum and Calodendrum capense herbal soaps were categorized as first-grade soaps (84 and 80% total fatty matter, respectively). All the tested soaps having plant concentrations of 12.5 mg/ml inhibited all the tested micro-organisms except for Enterobacter cloacae. The findings (phytochemical, antimicrobial, toxicity) herein contribute to the knowledge gaps that exist in the ethnobotanical literature of some southern African soap plants and provide evidence for their potential to be incorporated into soap formulation.

Comparative Analysis of Soaps Produced Using Locally Made Alkali (Elaeis guineensis) and Industrial Made Alkali

This work was done to compare the qualities of soaps produced using locally made alkali and industrial made alkali. Hot method was used in the production of the soaps. The average value ± standard error of chemical parameters of the palm kernel oil were as follows; relative density (g/ml) (0.91±0.07, 0.89-0.910), saponification value (mg/KOH/g) (249.18±1.40, 189-199), iodine value (I2/100g) (18.74±0.86, 50-55), free fatty acid (mg KOH/g) (1.719±0.009, <0.5), acid value (mg/KOH/g) (3.60±0.06, ≤30). The quality parameters of soaps such as; foam stability, total fatty matter and moisture content were analyzed. The value ± standard error of the properties of soap produced with local alkali gotten from palm bunch and industrial alkali were as follows; foam stability (min-1) (4.8±0.65, 3.5±0.40), total fatty matter (72, 75), moisture content (%) (13.0, 8.20). The result showed that palm bunch alkali has almost the same properties as pure potassium hydroxide soap.

Exploring the potentials of Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. seed kernel oil as pharmaceutical oil base: Physicochemical characterization and ketoconazole soap formulation

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (Rhamnaceae) is a large spiny shrub or small tree, native to the Indian subcontinent that can reach a maximum height of 9–15 m. This plant stands as a renowned tropical fruit variety, commonly recognized as the Indian plum, Desert apple, or Indian Jujube. The objective of this study was to examine the standard physicochemical parameters of Z. mauritiana seed kernel oil and to formulate the ketoconazole soap (2 % w/w), using the obtained oil, as a base. The oil was obtained through hexane extraction from the seed kernels. To formulate pharmaceutical ketoconazole soap, Z. mauritiana seed kernel oil was subjected to a basic saponification reaction using potassium hydroxide. All the examined physicochemical parameters, namely acid value (4.71 mg KOH/g), saponification value (229.18 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (4.15 milliequivalents KOH/g), ester value (224.47 mg KOH/g), iodine value (11.19 mg KOH/g), refractive index (1.448), pH (5.93), viscosity (89 cP), and specific gravity (0.912 g/mL) were within the acceptable range for industrial purposes. The examination of quality control parameters, namely drug content (99.49 %), total fatty matter (71.13 %), foam retention time (17.21 min), foam height (18.56 cm), moisture content (9.14 %), and pH (7.16) indicated that the newly formulated ketoconazole soap complied with the acceptable limits. In summary, our research demonstrated the excellent physicochemical stability of Z. mauritiana seed kernel oil and its suitability as a soap base, supporting its promising prospects for cost-effective production of cosmetics, soaps, and shampoos in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries, reducing reliance on synthetic bases.

Antibacterial Properties and Chemical Parameters Determination of Medicinal Soap Produced with Acalypha wilkesiana Plant Extracts

In rural communities of the poor developing economies, dermatophytic infections have become pandermic with about 20-25% of the population affected. The present study was carried out to produce medicinal soaps with antibacterial and antifungal activities using leaf extracts of Acalypha wilkesiana. We compared the antimicrobial properties of different concentrations of the extract of the plant in soap production and the chemical parameters of the produced soap were determined. The soap containing 15% Acalypha wilkesiana showed more activities against clinical strains of Candida albicans and Staphyloccocus aureus at all concentrations with zones of inhibition between 6 – 18 mm compared to values obtained against Proteus mirabilis and pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, soap containing 10% of the medicinal plant was not active against all the test microorganisms at lower concentrations of 10 and 100 µg/mL but the activity increased with increased concentration of the active ingredient in the soap to 1000 and 10,000 µg/mL. However, the soap containing 5% medicinal plant was not active at any of the concentrations. The chemical parameters determined indicated that Total fatty matter (TFM) 47% is within the acceptable limit. The values obtained for Matter insoluble in water (18%), matter insoluble in alcohol (0.5%), Total free acidity (0.7%), Moisture content (7%), pH(10.5) and % Free alkali as Na2O (6.19%) were all within acceptable limit. The Foam stability was determined to be 3.98 mins. It is therefore obvious that the soap containing 15% Acalypha wilkesiana is more effective against the test microorganisms compared to 10% and could be utilized for the management of skin infections.

Revisiting the role of total fatty matter in soap bars

AbstractMore than 10 million tonnes of metal salts of fatty acids are manufactured worldwide every year, to create a range of soft condensed‐matter cosmetic products such as bar soaps, liquid washes, deodorant sticks, skin creams, toothpastes, and so on. These salts, popularly known as soaps, mainly use palm or tallow‐based oils as the source of fatty acids. Soap bars comprised of more than 80% soaps alone account for a significant part of the global oil/fat footprint in non‐edible usage. The COVID pandemic highlighted the need for hygiene and germ protection, thereby driving the consumption of soap bars further. Providing these personal hygiene assets to all strata of society while minimizing the negative impact on the environment through increased material consumption is a critical challenge faced by the soap industry today. Considerable research is ongoing toward making more sustainable soap bars by reducing the use of oils/fats without compromising the sensory and functional performance. Another challenge faced is that in many geographies, soap bars must comply with regulatory standards which mandate minimum levels of oils/fats (called TFM—total fatty matter) in the product with no reference to the performance or benefits provided. What this paper will demonstrate is that there are technologies to manufacture soap bars that meet the desired product performance independent of the level of TFM. These technologies have the potential to provide formulation flexibility and environmental benefits by opening the ingredient space and cutting down significantly on greenhouse gas emissions through reduced consumption of oils.

Grains production in high climate change impacted regions and its potential for the supply of critical nutrients for humans nutritional well being

Climate change affects most remarkably Savannah regions in ways that alter agricultural productivity. In addition, these regions are marked by high prevalence of malnutrition and mortality related to undernourishment in children under 5 years old. One of the most promising solutions to sustainably fight malnutrition is to design programs that will consider locally produced foods and production approaches that protect the soil. The present study was designed to evaluate the nutritional quality of grains produced in the Savannah in order to provide data that will be used to make recommendations for nutrition and sustainable farming. Farmers in the Savannah region in Togo were interviewed about their productions and their produced grains were sampled for biochemical characterization. All producers exploit family lands and mainly produce grains. More than 98% of producers breed poultry by only at the family level. Biochemical characterization of the sampled foods shows that pulses present a relative high level of sand, fatty matters and proteins. Results show that both cereals and pulses contain sufficient energy, fatty matters, vitamins and minerals that are necessary for human wellbeing. Foods formulations could be made especially for children under food substitution. In addition, pulses production is encouraged for sustainable soil preservation.Graphical abstract

The synergistic effect of waste cooking oil and endod (Phytolacca dodecandra) on the production of high-grade laundry soap

A green viewpoint based on the production of soap using waste products such waste cooking oils (WCOs) and Endod (Phytolacca dodecandra) is presented. The process of saponification, which involves reacting triglycerides with fats and oils in an alkaline solution, produces soap. With the help of WCO and Endod as manufacturing inputs, this study intends to create high-quality, commercially viable eco-friendly soaps. The optimal blend of WCO and Endod with sodium hydroxide solution was used in the current investigation to create laundry soaps. Evaluations were done on the cleansing effects and physico-chemical makeup of prepared soap. As a reference control, the raw oil soaps made without and with frying were employed. The free caustic alkali content, chloride content, moisture content, ethanol-insoluble-matter, total fatty matter, pH, and foam height values of the prepared soap were found to be in the range of 0%, 0%, 16.56–22.52%, 0.1–3.05%, 63.41–75.46%, 9.22–9.82%, and 3.3–8.1 cm respectively. The results obtained by blending fried WCOs and Endod were comparable to the Physico-chemical properties of the Endod-free uncooked/fresh oil soap. The soap made by blending WCO and Endod has higher cleansing power and better lather formation than the prepared soap with WCO without Endod. Moreover, the observed data are comparable with similar data reported in other literature, recommended acceptable standards (EAS, CES), and from many countries including the British, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Cooking oils fried at different temperatures do not have much effect on the quality of soap making. This suggested that the blending of WCOs and Endod can be used as raw materials to prepare high-quality and economically feasible soaps by replacing imported oils and fats.

Physicochemical evaluation of Prinsepia utilis seed oil (PUSO) and its utilization as a base in pharmaceutical soap formulation

This study aims to evaluate the standard physicochemical parameters, such as iodine value, acid value, saponification value, ester value, refractive index, peroxide value, and viscosity, of Prinsepia utilis (P. utilis) seed oil (PUSO) obtained as hexane extract from seeds, and to formulate ketoconazole soap (2% w/w) by using extracted oil as a base. The quality control standards of the final ketoconazole soap complied with the standards specified in Indian Pharmacopeia. Pharmaceutical soap was obtained by treating PUSO with potassium hydroxide (KOH), undergoing basic saponification. All physicochemical parameters, such as acid value (21.78 mg KOH/g), saponification value (194.13 mg KOH/g), iodine value (99.7 g I2/100 g), ester value (172.35 mg KOH/g), refractive index (1.464), and viscosity (192 centipoises [cps]), conformed to industrial standards, except the peroxide value (19.23 milliequivalent KOH/g). Besides, evaluation of quality control parameters of pharmaceutical soap suggested that its various parameters, such as pH (7.3), foam-forming ability (14.5 cm), foam retention time (15 min), total fatty matter (69.31%), moisture content (10.35%), and drug content (99.37%), were within the acceptable limit. Overall, our study showed that P. utilis base was physicochemically stable and suitable for manufacturing cosmetic products, soaps, and shampoo in an economical manner, rather than using expensive chemical additives, in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industry. Further, this study suggested that therapeutically and commercially successful ketoconazole soap, with all the required quality control parameters, could be manufactured by using naturally available oil at a low cost.

Synthesis of Natural-Inspired Materials by Irradiation: Data Mining from the Perspective of Their Functional Properties in Wastewater Treatment

The present study is focused on assessing the interrelation of variables involved in the synthesis of natural-inspired copolymers by electron beam grafting while taking the functionality of the resulting materials into account. In this respect, copolymers of starch-graft-polyacrylamide (St-g-PAM) were synthesized by irradiation, and their flocculation efficiency regarding the total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and fatty matters (FM) was tested in coagulation-flocculation experiments at laboratory scale on wastewater from the oil industry. Data mining involved approaches related to the association (correlation and dimensionality reduction with principal component analysis (PCA)), clustering by agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC), classifying by classification and regression tree (CART), and prediction (decision tree prediction, multiple linear regression (MLR), and principal component regression (PCR)) of treatments applied with the variation of the monomer concentration, irradiation dose, and dose rate. The relationship mining proved that the level of COD was significantly affected by the irradiation dose and monomer concentration, and FM was mainly affected by the dose rate (significance level = 0.05). TSS showed the highest negative correlation with the tested variables. Moreover, the consequences of MLR demonstrated an acceptable accuracy (mean absolute percentage error < 5%) for COD and FM; meanwhile, linear modeling together with the consequences of PCA in the structure of PCR could help to simplify and improve the prediction accuracy of equations.

The Preparation and Physicochemical Analysis of Local Black Soap from Coconut Oil and Plantain Peel Biochar

Local black soap, produced from coconut oil and plantain peel biochar (alkaline source) was presented in this study since the agricultural raw materials gain significance in environmentally benign feedstocks for saponification reactions. The physicochemical analysis of the coconut oil and plantain peel biochar shows remarkable free fatty acid (FFA) and alkalinity contents respectively suitable for soap making. The physicochemical properties of the as-prepared local black soap demonstrated a good moisture content (15.1 %) showing that it can be stored for long periods without any water-associated deteriorations. The percentage of matter insoluble in water (4.4 %), matter insoluble in alcohol (12.3 %), FFA content (2.1 %), and pH (9) were found to be higher than the acceptable limit according to the Nigerian Industry Standards (NIS). Also, the total fatty matter (TFM) was higher (67.6 %) than the minimum acceptable level with a good foam height of 2.5 cm. The overall results show good soap properties and are suitable for domestic purposes.

SG-APSIC1050: Personal care formulations prove effective against evolving variants of SARS-CoV-2: Implications for public health and hygiene

Objectives: Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, global health authorities identified and emphasized the importance of practicing proper hand hygiene to reduce the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and to diminish the chances of becoming infected. It is well established in the scientific literature that surfactants and alcohols are capable of inactivating enveloped viruses such as SARS-CoV-2. However, given the novel nature of the virus, Unilever adopted an evidence-based approach to demonstrate virucidal efficacy of marketed bar soaps, liquid handwashes, and alcohol-based hand sanitizers against the original and selected variants of SARS-CoV-2. Methods: High titers of clinically isolated and laboratory-propagated SARS-CoV-2 strains were subjected to a range of selected proprietary formulations from Unilever at end-user–relevant dilutions, temperature, and contact duration, and were tested according to the internationally recognized ASTM E-1052 test protocol. Results: All tested personal-care formulations were effective against the parental SARS-CoV-2 strain as well as the β (beta) and δ (delta) variants of concern. More specifically, bar soaps with a varying concentration of total fatty matter content and liquid handwashes with varying levels of total surfactants reduced the viral titer by &gt;99.9% within 20 seconds. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers demonstrated &gt;99.99% reduction of input viral load within 15 seconds of contact with the viral inoculum. Conclusions: In conclusion, we have provided empirical proof that well-designed personal-care formulations that act through generic physicochemical mechanism against the basic structure of the virus particle have high virucidal efficacy against the original and evolved SARS-CoV-2 variants. Furthermore, we argue that due to the broad-spectrum mode of action of these tested formulations, the continued practice of good hand hygiene practices with everyday products holds significant promise as an easily accessible, economic, and effective nontherapeutic public health intervention toward reducing the transmission of present and future variants of SARS-CoV-2 across communities and populations.