Father-offspring Correlations Research Articles

Intergenerational transmission of parental neuroticism to emotional problems in 8-year-old children: Genetic and environmental influences.

Children of parents with high levels of neuroticism tend to have high neuroticism themselves as well as increased risk of experiencing symptoms of anxiety and depression. It is not yet clear how much of this link is attributable to a potential effect of parent on child (e.g., via a socializing effect) versus to shared genetic risk. We aimed to determine whether there is an intergenerational association after accounting for genetic transmission and assortative mating. We used data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study including 11,088 sibling pairs in the parental generation, their partners (N=22,176) and their offspring (N=26,091). Exposures were maternal and paternal neuroticism (self-reported), and the outcomes were neuroticism, symptoms of depression, and symptoms of anxiety in 8-year-old children (mother-reported). After accounting for assortative mating in parents (phenotypic r=0.26) and genetic transmission (explaining 0%-18% of the mother-offspring correlations), potential maternal effects explained 80% (95% CI=47-95) of the association with offspring neuroticism (mother-child r=0.31), 78% (95% CI=66-89) of the association with offspring depressive symptoms (r=0.31), and 98% (95% CI=45-112) of the association with offspring anxiety symptoms (r=0.16). Intergenerational transmission of genetic variants associated with paternal neuroticism accounted for ∼40% (CI=22%-58%) of the father-offspring correlations with neuroticism and symptoms of depression (r=0.13 and 0.13, respectively) but none with offspring symptoms of anxiety (r=0.05). The remaining father-offspring correlations were explained by maternal influences through assortative mating. These results are consistent with direct effects between maternal and offspring neuroticism and between maternal neuroticism and offspring symptoms of anxiety and depression. Further understanding of these intergenerational processes will require an adequate model of how these constructs (neuroticism, anxiety and depression) relate to each other within generations.

Intergenerational Transmission of Parental Neuroticism to Emotional Problems in 8-Year Old Children: Genetic and Environmental Mechanisms

Background: Children of parents with high levels of neuroticism tend to have high neuroticism themselves, as well as increased risk of experiencing symptoms of anxiety and depression. It is not yet clear how much of this link is attributable to a potential effect of parent on child (e.g., via a socializing effect) vs. to shared genetic risk. Methods: This study is based on data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. We used data from 11,088 sibling pairs in the parental generation, their partners (N= 22,176), and their offspring (N=26,091). Exposures were maternal and paternal neuroticism (self-reported), and the outcomes were neuroticism, symptoms of depression, and symptoms of anxiety in 8-year-old children (mother-reported). Outcomes: After accounting for assortative mating in parents (phenotypic r=0.26), genetic transmission of maternal neuroticism accounted for 16% of the correlation with offspring neuroticism (mother-child r=0.31), 18% of the association with offspring depressive symptoms (r=0.31), and 0% of the association with offspring anxiety symptoms (r=0.16). Intergenerational transmission of genes associated with paternal neuroticism accounted for ~40% of the father-offspring correlations with neuroticism and symptoms of depression (r=0.13 and 0.13, respectively) but none with offspring symptoms of anxiety (r=0.05). The remaining father-offspring correlations was explained by maternal influences through assortative mating. Interpretations: These results are consistent with direct effects between maternal and offspring neuroticism and between maternal neuroticism and offspring symptoms of anxiety and depression, suggesting that interventions targeted at family functioning could benefit the children. Funding Statement: This work was supported by the Research Council of Norway (RCN) (262177). E.M.E. and L.C.G. were funded by the RCN (262177). E.Y. was funded by the RCN (288083 and 262177). A.H. was supported by the South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority (2018059 and 2020022). T.A.McA. was supported by a Sir Henry Dale Fellowship, jointly funded by the Wellcome Trust and the Royal Society (107706/Z/15/Z) and the RCN (288083). L.J.H. was supported by funding from the SouthEastern Norway Regional Health Authority (2018058). F.A.T. was supported by the RCN (300668). This work was partly supported by the RCN through its Centres of Excellence funding scheme, project number 262700. Declaration of Interests: The authors have declared that they have no competing or potential conflicts of interest. Ethics Approval Statement: The establishment of MoBa and initial data collection was based on a license from the Norwegian Data protection agency and approval from The Regional Committees for Medical and Health Research Ethics. The MoBa cohort is based on regulations based on the Norwegian Health Registry Act. The current study was approved by The Regional Committees for Medical and Health Research Ethics.

An exploratory study of parent-child association in sensory modulation disorder involving ADHD-related symptoms.

Sensory modulation disorder (SMD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can co-occur and have overlapping symptoms, thus challenging practitioners. This study aimed to phenotypically explore parent-child associations in SMD, and the interplay between SMD- and ADHD-related symptoms in children with SMD and their parents. A cross-sectional study examined 70 parents (n = 35 mothers; n = 35 fathers) and their 35 children with and without SMD, aged 4-6 years. Parents completed care-giver reports: The Short Sensory Profile (SSP) and the ADHD Rating Scale, and self-reports: The Sensory Responsiveness Questionnaire (SRQ) and the ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS). In the entire sample, we found a mother-offspring correlation between SSP and SRQ-Aversive scores (rs = -0.68; p < 0.001), but no such father-offspring correlation. However, when testing the ADHD Rating Scale and ASRS scores, we found correlations between mothers and offspring (rs = 0.54, p = 0.0008), and between fathers and offspring (rs = 0.34, p = 0.0494). In the entire sample a high correlation was found between SSP and ADHD Rating Scale scores (rs = -0.837, p < 0.001). We further found a high correlation in mothers (rs = 0.70, p < 0.001), and a moderate correlation in fathers (rs = 0.40, p = 0.019) between SRQ-Aversive and ASRS scores. Novel findings reveal that parents-offspring heritability patterns differ in both these related conditions. These may contribute to familial practice and research.

Sources of Parent-Child Transmission of Drug Abuse: Path Analyses of Not-Lived-With Parental, Stepparental, Triparental, and Adoptive Families.

To clarify the origins of parent-child resemblance for drug abuse (DA), using national Swedish data, we fit path models to information on DA in parents and children from six informative family types: i) not-lived-with father, ii) not-lived-with mother, iii) stepfather, iv) stepmother, v) triparental, and vi) adoptive. From these families, we estimated parent-offspring resemblance reflecting the effects of genes + rearing, genes only, and rearing only. The estimates of parent-offspring correlations were statistically homogenous across family types. The weighted estimate of the father-offspring correlation for DA for genes + rearing, genes-only, and rearing-only relationships were, respectively, +0.26, +0.19, and +0.06. Parallel figures for mother-offspring relationships were +0.19, +0.13, and +0.09. In both genes + rearing and genes-only parent-offspring relationships, DA correlations were stronger for fathers than for mothers. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute substantially to parent-offspring resemblance for DA and seem to be additive.

Meta-analysis of telomere length in 19 713 subjects reveals high heritability, stronger maternal inheritance and a paternal age effect

Telomere length (TL) has been associated with aging and mortality, but individual differences are also influenced by genetic factors, with previous studies reporting heritability estimates ranging from 34 to 82%. Here we investigate the heritability, mode of inheritance and the influence of parental age at birth on TL in six large, independent cohort studies with a total of 19,713 participants. The meta-analysis estimate of TL heritability was 0.70 (95% CI 0.64-0.76) and is based on a pattern of results that is highly similar for twins and other family members. We observed a stronger mother-offspring (r=0.42; P-value=3.60 × 10(-61)) than father-offspring correlation (r=0.33; P-value=7.01 × 10(-5)), and a significant positive association with paternal age at offspring birth (β=0.005; P-value=7.01 × 10(-5)). Interestingly, a significant and quite substantial correlation in TL between spouses (r=0.25; P-value=2.82 × 10(-30)) was seen, which appeared stronger in older spouse pairs (mean age ≥55 years; r=0.31; P-value=4.27 × 10(-23)) than in younger pairs (mean age<55 years; r=0.20; P-value=3.24 × 10(-10)). In summary, we find a high and very consistent heritability estimate for TL, evidence for a maternal inheritance component and a positive association with paternal age.

Personality Resemblance Between Parents and Offspring: Study of Five Factors Across Four Samples and Questionnaires

The aim of this study was to compare personality resemblance in four independent Croatian samples using the same family study design, but different measures of five-factor personality traits. The family study design can provide evidence of familial aggregation of personality and of assortative mating. Father-mother correlations, father-offspring correlations, mother-offspring correlations and regressions of offspring on midparent score were computed for five broad personality domains in each sample. Father-mother correlations ranged between −.12 and .27 across different samples and questionnaires, while father-offspring correlations ranged between .04 and .34, mother-offspring correlations between −.01 and .28 and regressions of offspring on midparent scores between .05 and .35. These results are congruent with earlier findings of: (a) low assortative mating for personality, and (b) moderate familial aggregation of personality, which is lower compared to heritability estimates from earlier studies using twin design. Familial aggregation is mostly comparable in size across four different five-factor questionnaires suggesting that, from a behavior genetic perspective, conclusions on family resemblance should not differ depending on the five-factor personality questionnaire used.

Intrafamilial Correlations of Carotid Intima–Media Thickness and Flow-Mediated Dilation in a Siberian Population

Intima-media thickening and impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation are complex phenotypes determined by genetic and environmental factors. Few studies assessed these phenotypes in the same subjects. The goal of our study was to assess the sex-specific intrafamilial aggregation of ultrasonographic carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) and brachial flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD) in a Siberian population. We randomly recruited 81 nuclear families of Caucasian ancestry (129 parents and 157 offspring, mean age 52.4 and 26.3 years) in Novosibirsk, Russia. Carotid artery IMT and brachial artery FMD were assessed by ultrasound. Intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated between first-degree relatives and between unrelated spouse pairs for IMT and FMD in age- adjusted, sex-adjusted, and multivariate-adjusted models. Multivariate-adjusted correlation coefficients in sib-sib pairs were 0.27 (P = .042) for IMT and 0.29 (P = .049) for FMD with heritabilities (h(2)= 2r) of 0.54 and 0.58, respectively. For IMT, the mother-offspring (r = 0.17, P = .051) and mother-daughter correlations (r = 0.28, P = .025) were significant, whereas the father-offspring correlation did not differ from zero (r = 0.11, P = .33). For FMD the father-offspring (r = 0.24, P = .042) and father-son correlations (r = 0.40, P = .051) were significant, whereas the mother-offspring correlation was only -0.09 (P = .39). The P value for the difference in familial aggregation of FMD between father-offspring and mother-offspring pairs was .018. Our findings confirm that a substantial proportion of the variability of carotid IMT and brachial FMD is attributable to genetic variation. They also suggest that offspring share more genetic or environmental determinants of FMD with fathers than their mothers.

Telomere length and heredity: Indications of paternal inheritance

Cellular telomere length is linked to replicative life span. Telomere repeats are lost in peripheral blood cells in vivo by age, and women show less telomere attrition than men. Previous reports have indicated that telomere length and chromosome-specific telomere-length patterns partly are inherited. The mode of heredity has not been clarified, but a link to the X chromosome was recently suggested. We analyzed peripheral mononuclear cells from 49 unrelated families for telomere length using a real-time PCR method. Short-term cultured Epstein-Barr virus-transformed lymphoblasts from the same individuals (n = 130) were analyzed for ability to maintain telomere length and possible gender-linked inheritance. A statistically significant association between telomere lengths comparing father-son (P = 0.011, n = 20) and father-daughter (P = 0.005, n = 22) pairs was found. However, no correlation was observed between mother-daughter (P = 0.463, n = 23) or mother-son (P = 0.577, n = 18). The father-offspring correlation was highly significant (P < 0.0001), in contrast to mother-offspring (P = 0.361). Epstein-Barr virus cultures demonstrated in most cases telomere preservation inversely related to initial mononuclear cell telomere length with short telomeres displaying the most pronounced elongation. Telomere length is inherited, and evidence for a father-to-offspring heritage of this trait was obtained, whereas in vitro telomere length maintenance was found to be dependent on the initial telomere length.

Segregation analysis of bronchial hyperresponsiveness in a general population in north italy

Bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR) is an intermediate phenotype of asthma, with a heritability component of 30-67% and possible linkage to regions on chromosome arms 5q, 11q, and 20p. Familial correlation analysis and segregation analysis for BHR, using the FCOR and REGC programs of the S.A.G.E package, were performed to examine inheritance patterns of BHR in a general population of 1167 subjects in 550 families from the Po River Delta. BHR was assessed using the log(10) of the slope of the methacholine dose-response curve (log slope) for each subject who met inclusion criteria. Using multiple linear regression analysis, the log slope values were adjusted for age, age(2), sex, and height, and used in the familial correlation and segregation analyses. Father-offspring correlations are statistically significant, due specifically to high father-son correlations (r = 0.296, P < 0.001, adjusted values). Segregation analysis of BHR in the overall population, with and without a smoking covariate (number of packyears smoked), indicates an apparent absence of genetic transmission within families. However, in a segregation analysis of BHR in smoking families only, after adjusting for number of packyears smoked, the Mendelian transmission models could not be rejected. This may be evidence of a gene by smoking effect, and suggests that in families of smokers, a single locus gene may in part explain the inheritance of a compound phenotype (BHR x packyears).

Family study of sensation seeking

The paper presents the results of the family study of sensation seeking. The sample consisted of high school students and their parents: 151 offspring (95 females and 56 males), 148 mothers and 118 fathers. Both offspring and their parents completed Sensation Seeking Scale-Form V (SSS-V). Parents also completed the Parental Behaviour Scale (PBS). Parental Behaviour Scale is a measure of parental behaviour developed for the purpose of this research. It consists of 10 items measuring two dimensions of parental behaviour: parental affection and parental control. Each parent had to report his/her own behaviour, as well as the behaviour of their partners. Parents’ SSS-V and PBS scores were related with the offsprings’ SSS-V scores. Father–offspring correlations ranged between 0.18 and 0.27 for different sensation-seeking subscales, while mother–offspring correlations ranged between 0.02 and 0.24. Regressions of offspring on midparent scores ranged between 0.19 and 0.32. Mother–father correlations were statistically significant for all subscales, except for Thrill and Adventure Seeking Scale, and ranged between 0.26 and 0.46 suggesting assortative mating for sensation seeking in this sample. The only measure from PBS that correlated with children's sensation seeking was fathers’ parental control (average fathers’ control correlated 0.24 with total children's SSS score).

Maternal and paternal influences on left ventricular mass of offspring.

Significant intrafamilial correlations of left ventricular mass exist in first-degree relatives. However, the specific maternal and paternal influences on left ventricular mass of offspring remain unknown. We therefore evaluated familial aggregation of left ventricular mass by type of familial relation in two European populations. A random sample of 159 nuclear families (250 parents and 321 offspring) was investigated in Cracow, Poland, and Novosibirsk, Russia. The mean age of parents and offspring was 51.4 years and 25.1 years, respectively. Two-dimensionally guided M-mode echocardiography was performed, and left ventricular mass was calculated. As a measure of concordance, we computed correlation coefficients for left ventricular mass between first-degree relatives and between spouse pairs. After adjustment for center, gender, age, height, body weight, systolic blood pressure, antihypertensive treatment, smoking, alcohol intake, and physical activity, the intrafamilial correlations for left ventricular mass were 0.06 (P=0.57) in 91 spouse-spouse pairs, 0.14 (P=0.002) in 500 parent-offspring pairs, and 0.32 (P<0.001) in 179 sib-sib pairs. Across the four parent-offspring relations, the intrafamilial correlations of left ventricular mass differed. The mother-son (n=140, r=0.27, P<0.001) and mother-daughter (n=161, r=0.28, P<0.001) correlations were significant, whereas the father-son (n=101, r=0.04, P=0.69) and father-daughter (n=98, r=-0.09, P=0.38) correlations were not different from zero. Overall, the mother-offspring correlation coefficient was significantly higher than the father-offspring correlation (r=0.28 versus r=-0.04; P=0.005). Thus, maternal factors appear to have more impact on left ventricular mass of offspring than do paternal influences. Further studies are required to elucidate the genetic, epigenetic, and ecogenetic mechanisms underlying these divergent parent-offspring correlations.

The Magnitude of Familial Associations of Cardiovascular Risk Factor Variables between Parents and Offspring Are Influenced by Age: The Bogalusa Heart Study

PURPOSE: Although parent-offspring associations of cardiovascular risk factor variables are known, the age-specific nature of this familial relationship is not clear. METHODS: This aspect was examined in 727 unrelated children (mean age: 11.2 years) and their parents who participated in the Bogalusa Heart Study during their childhood (mean age: 11.3 years) and adulthood (mean age: 25.5 years). RESULTS: After adjusting for covariates, the mothers' childhood-offspring correlations were consistently higher than mothers' adulthood-offspring correlations for body mass index (BMI) [ r = 0.45 vs. 0.32], systolic blood pressure (SBP) [ r = 0.30 vs. 0.10], diastolic blood pressure (DPB) [ r = 0.22 vs. 0.13] and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC) [ r = 0.20 vs. 0.11]. In contrast, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) and triglycerides did not show such age-specific trends in mother-offspring correlations. Corresponding father-offspring correlations showed similar patterns, but the differences were of lesser magnitude. Multiple regression analyses using offspring's risk factor variables as dependent variables revealed that parents' childhood obesity, blood pressure and LDLC levels were better predictors of the corresponding variables in the young offspring than parents' adulthood values. Further, sex of either parents or offspring made no difference in the above findings. CONCLUSIONS: The magnitude of the familial associations of cardiovascular risk factor variables between parents and offspring are influenced by age. Intrinsic genetic make-up, duration of exposure to environment and gene-environment interactions may play a role in this association.

Spontaneous sister chromatid exchange and chromosome aberration frequency in humans: the familial effect

The possible effects of environmental and genetic factors on spontaneous frequencies of sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs) and cells with chromosome aberrations (CAs) in human lymphocytes were investigated by analysing 177 completed families (mother, father and at least one child). After removing the effects of methodological, biological and life-style factors by the use of multifactor analysis of variance (MANOVA), SCEs and CAs residuals were analysed by simple correlation analysis and principal component analysis. SCEs and CAs inter-familiar variability was higher than that found within families. A significant correlation was found between the average SCE frequencies shared by parents (the so-called `midpoint parents', or `midparent') and offspring (linear slope b=0.26±0.07, p<0.05), but also between mother and father ( b=0.23±0.11, p<0.05) suggesting the presence of an effective environmental factor. The midparent-offspring correlation was found to be substained by the mother-offspring relationship ( b=0.28±0.08, p<0.05), being the father-offspring correlation not significant ( b=0.16±0.11, p>0.05). Concerning CAs, no statistically significant correlation between parents was found, but the strong relationship between mother and offspring was confirmed ( b=0.468±0.11, p<0.001). The SCEs correlation between mother vs. offspring disappeared for older offspring (over 23 years old). The obtained findings strongly showed that the genetic make-up is barely detectable in the presence of domestic environment factors which are shown to play the major role in determining the interfamilial variability of SCE and CA in a general population. These results strengthen the suitability of the use of SCEs and CAs analysis in human cytogenetic surveillance for the detection of effective environmental factors.

Offspring sex ratio is related to male body size in the great tit (Parus major)

Sex allocation theory predicts that the allocation of resources to male and female function should depend on potential fitness gain realized through investment in either sex. In the great tit (Parus major), a monogamous passerine bird, male resource-hording potential (RHP) and fertilization success both depend on male body size (e.g., tarsus length) and plumage traits (e.g., breast stripe size). It is predicted that the proportion of sons in a brood should increase both with male body size and plumage traits, assuming that these traits show a father-offspring correlation. This was confirmed in our study: the proportion of sons in the brood increased significantly with male tarsus length and also, though not significantly, with the size of the breast stripe. A sex ratio bias in relation to male tarsus length was already present in the eggs because (1) the bias was similar among broods with and without mortality before the nestlings' sex was determined, and (2) the bias remained significant when the proportion of sons in the clutch was conservatively estimated, assuming that differential mortality before sex determination caused the bias. The bias was still present among recruits. The assumption of a father-offspring correlation was confirmed for tarsus length. Given that both RHP and fertilization success of male great tits depend on body size, and size of father and offspring is correlated, the sex ratio bias may be adaptive. [KEYWORDS: body size, great tits, Parus major, resource holding potential, sex allocation, sexual selection]

Family study of the big five personality dimensions

NEO—PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992) was administered to a sample of 138 adolescents and their parents. Father-offspring correlations, mother-offspring correlations and regressions of offspring on midparent score were computed for 30 facet scales as well as for the five broad domains: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness. At the domain level, father-offspring correlations were significant for openness to experience and conscientiousness, while mother-offspring correlations were significant only for neuroticism. The regressions of offspring on midparent score were significant in all of these three domains. At the facet level, one-third of the father-offspring and mother-offspring correlations as well as half of the parent-offspring regressions were significant. However, results indicate weak family resemblance for the big five personality dimensions. The median father-offspring correlation, mother offspring correlations and midparent-offspring regression for 30 facets were 0.11, 0.10, and 0.15, respectively.

Family study of the big five personality dimensions

NEO—PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992) was administered to a sample of 138 adolescents and their parents. Father-offspring correlations, mother-offspring correlations and regressions of offspring on midparent score were computed for 30 facet scales as well as for the five broad domains: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness. At the domain level, father-offspring correlations were significant for openness to experience and conscientiousness, while mother-offspring correlations were significant only for neuroticism. The regressions of offspring on midparent score were significant in all of these three domains. At the facet level, one-third of the father-offspring and mother-offspring correlations as well as half of the parent-offspring regressions were significant. However, results indicate weak family resemblance for the big five personality dimensions. The median father-offspring correlation, mother offspring correlations and midparent-offspring regression for 30 facets were 0.11, 0.10, and 0.15, respectively.

Family study of lipoprotein lipase gene polymorphisms and plasma triglyceride levels

To better characterize the role of the lipoprotein lipase (LPL) gene in the determination of triglyceride levels in healthy subjects, a study was performed in 193 nuclear families (384 parents, means age = 42.0 ± 5.2 years; 399 offspring, mean age = 14.6 ± 4.3 years) volunteering to have a free health checkup examination. The pattern of familial resemblance was compatible with a zero correlation between spouses, a weak father-offspring correlation (0.099 ± 0.054; P < 0.07), and significant mother-offspring (0.235 ± 0.053; P < 10−4) and sib-sib (0.294 ± 0.064; P < 10−4) correlations. Associations of triglyceride levels with the LPL HindIII and PvuII polymorphisms were investigated by a familial measured genotype analysis, specifying sex- and age-dependent polymorphism effects. The effects associated with both polymorphisms were significant only in fathers, the H+ and P+ alleles being associated with raised triglyceride levels. The HindIII and PvuII polymorphisms explained 3.5% and 3%, respectively, of the variability of triglycerides in fathers. The relationship was weakened after prior adjustment on body mass index, but remained significant for PvuII. Because of the lack of effect in mothers and offspring, the polymorphisms did not contribute to the covariance of triglyceride levels in relatives. In conclusion, this family study showed a weak relationship of the HindIII and PvuII polymorphisms to plasma triglyceride levels in young healthy male subjects. The effects detectable only in fathers suggest a possible modulation of the LPL expression by hormonal or lifestyle factors. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Family resemblance in body circumferences and their ratios: the Nancy family study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the familial resemblance for individual body circumferences (suprailiac, waist, thigh and arm) and for the waist/suprailiac (as surrogate for the waist/hip) and the waist/thigh circumference ratios, in a sample of 216 unselected nuclear families with children aged 10-25 years. Familial correlations were jointly computed, using the maximum-likelihood method. The highest familial resemblance was observed for the waist circumference and for the waist/suprailiac and the waist/thigh circumference ratios. There was no significant difference between father-offspring and mother-offspring correlations when considering individual body circumferences. In contrast, when considering the two ratios there was a stronger mother-child than father-child similarity. Furthermore, there was a higher resemblance of the mother with her daughter than with her son, but no significant sib sex difference in the father-offspring relationship. There was also a heterogeneity of sibling correlations for the two ratios, the like-sex pairs exhibiting higher correlations than the unlike-sex pairs. Lastly, the similarity observed between spouses, of similar magnitude to the father-offspring correlation, suggests the contribution of environmental rather than genetic factors for explaining the familial resemblance of the two ratios. In conclusion, the great family resemblance for the waist/suprailiac and the waist/thigh circumference ratios (correlations ranging from 0.23 to 0.68) appears remarkable, and should be taken in consideration, given the predictive value of these indices for disease in adulthood.

Familial Resemblance in Cognitive Abilities: An Indirect Method of Measurement

Familial resemblance in cognitive abilities was assessed for 528 mother-offspring pairs, 510 father-offspring pairs and 416 sibling pairs. Using a self-rating procedure, competence in reading, spelling, and mathematics were assessed. Over-all, father-offspring correlations were stronger than mother-offspring correlations for these cognitive abilities. The obtained magnitude and pattern of correlations for the cognitive skills are similar to those obtained in direct objective testing procedures. This suggests that self-rating of cognitive skills may provide a quick convenient method of obtaining ancillary data on family patterns of cognitive abilities.