Father-child Play Research Articles

Caregiver or Playmate? Fathers' and mothers' brain responses to ball-play with children.

Parents and children often engage in joint play-a domain where mothers and fathers are thought to exhibit disparate behaviors and impact child development via distinct mechanisms. However, little is known about the neural substrates of mother-child and father-child play. In this fMRI study, we sampled thebrain activation of parents of preschoolers (N = 88) during a novel event-related adaptation of the virtual ball-tossing game "Cyberball." Mothers (N = 40) and fathers (N = 48) played "Cyberball" ostensibly with their own and an unrelated child, whoconsecutively included, excluded, and reincluded parents. We found that overall, exclusion yielded comparable neural activations in mothers and fathers associated with mentalizing, saliency, and emotionprocessing. We also observed a parent gender effect in several brain areas. While mothers exhibited increased reward- and attention-related activity during inclusion, fathers displayed increased mentalizing-related activity during exclusion. Furthermore,we tested parents' response to reinclusion, which revealed a selective decrease in reward-related activity. Finally, exploratory analyses showed that parental involvement was positively correlated with parental brain activity within attention- and mentalizing-related areas during inclusion, as opposed to other game phases, and that an anxious parenting style was associated with increased neural sensitivity for game events involving their own child. Overall, our study elucidates the common and distinct neural networks that mothers and fathers engage during play interactions with their children, supporting theories that postulate only a partial differentiation of paternal and maternal parenting systems.

유아사회정서발달 지원교육에 참여한 아버지의 경험과 변화

The purpose of this study is to examine and analyze the experience and transformation of fathers who participated in education for children's socio-emotional development. For this research, six fathers were selected as research participants, and they went through 7 weeks of education in children’s socio-emotional developmental support, including group interviews. During the study, recordings of videos, transcripts, self-reflections, and interviews of the participants from the education were collected and analyzed. The results have shown that through the education, the participants were able to ‘recognize and understand their ignorance and indifference’, ‘practice and role-play to apply the knowledge in real-life situations’ and ‘experience how father-child play serves as a channel for the children's social and emotional development’ and ‘exchange sympathy and fellowship between fathers’. In addition, the interviews and reflections have shown that the participants have transformed into fathers who try to ‘comprehend and understand their children’, are ‘not embarrassed to express praise and encouragement’, are ‘not afraid to spend time with their children’ and ‘enjoy co-parenting’. As a result, the analyses of the study have shown that the education for children's socio-emotional development support for fathers has not only helped the children's socio-emotional development but has also improved child-parent communication and relationship, furthermore, resulting in positive improvements in marital relationships through encouraging and motivating equal sacrifice to achieve actively joint parenting.

Paternal influences on children's school readiness

In recent decades, a societal shift in paternal parenting has influenced family health, wellbeing and child development, with modern fathers appearing to have greater caregiver responsibilities compared to previous generations. This article aims to explore the paternal influences of father–child relationships on school readiness. Ten studies were critically reviewed from the literature. The findings suggest that positive father–child play interactions influence child development. Warm, sensitive and supportive parenting was recognised to promote child development and facilitate school readiness. Health visitor practice was explored and it is concluded that effective public health approaches must be used to ensure father-inclusive practice so that children's school readiness can be facilitated.

Self-reported reflective functioning and father-child interactions in a sample of fathers who have used intimate partner violence.

Reflective functioning (RF) has been found to be associated with mother-child interactions, but less is known about the association of fathers' self and child-focused RF and father-child relationships. Fathers who have histories of intimate partner violence (IPV) are known to have poor RF, which may impact their father-child interactions. The current study was designed to examine how types of RF are associated with father-child relationships. Pretreatment assessments and recorded, coded father-child play interactions were used to examine associations among fathers' history of adverse childhood experiences (ACES), RF and coded father-child play interactions in a sample of 47 fathers with a history of IPV use in the last 6 months with their coparent. Fathers' ACES and their child's mental states (CM) were associated with father-child dyadic play interactions. Fathers with greater ACES and higher scores on CM had the most dyadic tension and constriction during play interactions. Those with high ACES but low CM had scores similar to those with low ACES and low CM. These results indicate that fathers who have used IPV and have a history of significant adversity may benefit from interventions to increase their child-focused RF and further improve their interactions with their children.

The relationship between fathers’ parental role belief and father-child play interaction: The moderating effect of fathers’ belief in young children’s learning

연구목적: 본 연구는 아버지-유아 놀이상호작용과 부모역할신념, 유아학습신념의 관계를알아보고, 아버지의 부모역할신념과 아버지-유아 놀이상호작용의 관계에서 유아학습신념의 조절효과를 분석하는데 목적이 있다. 방법: 서울 및 경기 소재 유치원 및 어린이집에 다니고 있는 만 3, 4, 5세 유아 자녀의아버지 467명을 대상으로 편상관분석과 조절회귀분석을 실시하였다. 결과: 첫째, 아버지-유아 놀이상호작용은 아버지의 부모역할신념, 유아학습신념과 정적 상관이 있다. 둘째, 아버지의 부모역할신념과 아버지-유아 놀이상호작용의 관계에서 유아학습신념은 조절효과를 나타냈다. 결론: 유아기 아버지의 부모역할신념 수준이 높을수록 아버지와 유아자녀와의 놀이상호작용이 증가하는데, 이때 유아학습신념이 조절역할을 하여 부모역할신념이 낮은 부모더라도높은 유아학습신념 수준을 가질 때 부모역할신념이 낮으면서 유아학습신념이 낮은 집단에비해 아버지-유아 놀이상호작용이 빈번하게 나타날 수 있다. 즉, 유아기 아버지가 자녀와놀이를 자주 한다는 것은 부모의 역할로만 설명할 수 있는 것이 아니라 유아 자녀의 학습에대해 긍정적인 신념이 있을 때 배가 될 수 있다.Objectives: This study was conducted to examine the relationship between father-child play interaction, parental role belief, and belief in young children’s learning and then to analyze the moderating effect of belief in young children’s learning on the relationship between fathers’ parental role belief and father-child play interaction. Methods: This study carried out a partial correlation analysis and a regulatory regression analysis of 467 fathers with children who were three, four, and five years of age attending kindergartens and child-care centers in Seoul and Gyeonggi-do. Results: First, father-child play interaction was positively correlated with the fathers’ parental role belief and belief in young children’s learning. second, belief in young children’s learning had a moderating effect on the relationship between fathers’ parental role belief and father-child play interaction. Conclusions: The higher the level of young children’s fathers’ parental role belief, the higher the level of father-child play interaction, and even if the level of parental role belief is low, belief in young children’s learning has a moderating effect. Therefore, parents whose parental role belief is low but whose belief in young children’s learning is high present more frequent father-child play interaction than parents whose parental role belief and belief in young children’s learning are both low. In other words, the fact that fathers with young children often play with their children can not only be explained by parental roles, but can be doubled when they hold positive beliefs in young children’s learning.

Influence of parental play on Taiwanese 3-year-olds' executive function: Through the path of motor skills.

Parenting is known to impact children's executive function (EF) skills. However, nearly all the evidence comes from analyses of mother-child interaction. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Child Development and Care Database in Taiwan, the relations between both mother-child and father-child interaction and 3-year-olds' EF were investigated in 2,164 families. The results showed that mothers interacted with their children differently from fathers in terms of time distribution. Mothers were more equally involved in all aspects of parental involvement, whereas fathers spent more time in play. In addition, both mother-child and father-child play contributed to children's EF; however, the mediating effect of child motor skills was more prominent for father-child play. This study not only suggests a potential distinct and complementary role of fathers in young children's EF development but also indicates a unique mediating effect of motor skills in the path from parent-child play to child EF. Implications for parent education are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

아버지의 부모역할신념이 아버지-유아 놀이상호작용에 미치는 영향

Objectives This study is intended to reveal the relationship between Father-Child Play Interaction, Fathers’ Parental Role Belief and Parent-Child Relationships. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of fathers' parental role belief on father-child play interaction, focusing on the mediating effect of parent-child relationships in the relationship between fathers' parental role belief and father-child play interaction. Methods A questionnaire survey was conducted on 467 father of 3, 4 and 5 years old children attending kindergartens and childcare centers. To check the reliability of the questionnaire items, cronbach's α was calculated, and partial correlation analysis and stepwise multiple regression analysis were performed. Next, multiple regression analysis proposed by Baron & Kenney(1986) was performed to analyze the mediating effect of father's belief in father's role on father-child play interaction. Results First, father’s parental role belief had biggest effect on father-child play interaction, and it was followed by parent-child relationships in order. Second, parent-child relationships partially mediated the effect of father’s parental role belief on father-child play interaction. This means that fathers need to recognize their parent-child relationship more positively as well as admit their parental role & beliefs more actively in order to have more frequent play interactions with their children. Conclusions In order for fathers to have active play interactions with their children, it is necessary to actively recognize fathers' beliefs in parental roles. Active recognition of fathers' parental role belief can increase play interaction through mediating effect path in which fathers positively perceive relationship with their children.

Art Play with Daddy: Father-Child Play with Art Materials at Home.

Paternal involvement in household and childcare has increased over the past century, but global studies show that most mothers still remain responsible for a significantly higher proportion of total household care and childcare. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has further negatively impacted mothers, who take on the majority of childcare responsibilities. However, scholars agree that a father's devotion to playing with the child fosters the child's cognitive, linguistic, and socio-emotional development. Acknowledging and approaching art as a dynamic and integrated play, this qualitative case study investigates five South Korean father-child dyads and their interactions while playing with art materials. The participants engaged in three thematic art sessions designed by the author. Data collection involved audio and video recordings of each session, surveys of adult participants, and photos of finished artworks. The study found that fathers' varied educational backgrounds and perceptions of their abilities to facilitate arts learning influenced their confidence in teaching the arts at home. Furthermore, having a theme and prompting questions assisted the fathers to facilitate more focused art play. The art play also provided the father-child dyads with arts learning opportunities, including learning and distinguishing colors and recognizing stereotypes associated with colors. Moreover, one-on-one interaction between the dyads helped them build a more intimate bond. This study presents specific examples of art activities and participants' responses, which might offer insights and educational implications for paternal involvement in child play and thematic art play at home.

Understanding Father–Child Joint Play Experience Using a Convergent Mixed-Methods Design

Research on the characteristics of father-child play is limited, and how fathers perceive this experience and its contribution to children's development and the parent-child relationship is insufficiently described. To explore associations between fathers' own playfulness, their supportiveness of child playfulness, and child playfulness and fathers' perceptions of their joint play experiences. Convergent mixed-methods design. Family homes. The participants were 57 father-child dyads who resided in a metropolitan area. Children were ages 2 to 5 yr. Interviews with 11 fathers (ages 25-56 yr) were included in the qualitative analysis. Fathers completed a background questionnaire and the Short Measure of Adult Playfulness (SMAP) and participated in a semistructured interview. Fifteen minutes of video-recorded joint play were scored using the Parent/Caregiver Support of Children's Playfulness (PCSCP) and the Test of Playfulness (ToP). Fathers' own playfulness as measured with the SMAP was not related to their child's playfulness as measured with the ToP; however, their supportive behavior as measured with the PCSCP was associated with their child's playfulness. Fathers recognized the benefits of joint play for their child's development. The current findings help fill the gap in research linking fathers' own playfulness and supportiveness during joint play and their child's playfulness with fathers' perceptions of this experience. What This Article Adds: Understanding fathers' perceptions and behaviors can further enhance service delivery to children and families through interprofessional work to benefit parent-child relationships as well as child development.

Associations Between Paternal Play and Executive Function in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children.

Responsive and dynamic aspects of father-child play are associated with behavioral and neurocognitive development in children and could represent an important contributor to executive function (EF) skills for children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH). This study examined associations between paternal behaviors during play and EF skills of DHH children and children with typical hearing (TH). Father-child dyads in families with DHH children (n = 30) and TH children (n = 29) participated in a 15-min video-recorded free-play session that was coded for parental behaviors using Parent-Child Interaction Rating Scales and Rough and Tumble Play Quality. Families also completed an age-appropriate version of the Behavior Rating Index of Executive Function as a measure of child EF. DHH children were rated as having significantly more everyday difficulties with working memory than TH children. Fathers of DHH children were rated as more intrusive during play than fathers of TH children; however, there were no other differences between paternal groups on coded dimensions of father child play. Paternal respect for child autonomy was associated with fewer child difficulties with planning and organization skills and paternal play engagement was associated with fewer child EF difficulties. Moderation analyses revealed that paternal sensitivity was associated with more working memory difficulties and paternal respect for child autonomy was associated with fewer working memory difficulties for DHH children only. Paternal play could be an important environmental context for DHH outcomes. Fathers supporting independent play might generally support EF. Paternal engagement in play might also benefit EF. Results highlight paternal behavioral attributes that could lead to potential father-embedded intervention models.

A Systematic Review of Father-Child Play Interactions and the Impacts on Child Development.

Father–child play engagement has been linked to a variety of child developmental outcomes. However, the most prevalent types of play and child developmental outcomes utilised in research remains unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature on father–child play interactions and the association with child developmental outcomes for children aged 0–10 years. Database searches generated 1622 abstracts that matched the specified search criteria. screening and full-text review resulted in 39 included publications. The systematic review revealed that while some paternal play behaviours resulted in different impacts across play types, others reported similar impacts. The findings of this review have implications for potential interventions and parenting resources.

Quality and Quantity: A Study of Father–Toddler Rough-and-Tumble Play

Parent–child interactions are critical for a child’s overall wellbeing and growth, however there are differences in the types of interactions that mothers and fathers engage in. For example, fathers often utilize physical play, such as Rough-and-Tumble Play (RTP), to interact and bond with their child. Father-child RTP appears to contribute to a range of child outcomes, including social, emotional cognitive and behaviour development. Given the now robust evidence for these benefits of father–child play and RTP specifically, there is a need for a more complete understanding of the factors that contribute to the quality of fathers’ RTP. This study examined the association between quality of father–toddler RTP and a range of paternal characteristics, parenting factors, child demographics and child developmental domains. The study included 64 sets of parents (mothers and fathers) and their toddler (age 18–24 months). Parent-reported questionnaires (demographic information, frequency of father–toddler RTP, father parenting stress, and child social-emotional development) were collected, observations of child developmental attainment (Bayley-III) completed and father–toddler RTP play interactions were rated for quality. We found that RTP for fathers who engaged in more father–toddler RTP, whose children were older and more socially-emotionally mature, was rated as higher quality in their RTP. By demonstrating links of RTP quality with both parenting behaviour and child development, this study contributes to a more complete understanding of the nature and context of father–child interactions. Father–child physical play, including RTP, may present an opportunity for professionals to bring fathers into their work with families.

Father-child play: A systematic review of its frequency, characteristics and potential impact on children’s development

Parent-child play interactions in the first years of life are linked to more positive cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes for children. The vast majority of previous research has focussed on mother-infant play interactions, but the potential positive role of fathers’ early involvement in children’s lives is being increasingly recognised, with higher levels of caregiving by fathers in many countries. To characterise the nature and potential impact of father-child play we undertook a systematic review of the published literature in psychological and educational databases up until 2018. We focussed on studies addressing the frequency and characteristics of fathers’ play with children (aged 0–3 years), and the potential impact on children’s development. We screened 436 articles, yielding 78 papers addressing the questions of interest. There are 3 key findings. First, fathers spend a significant proportion of their time with their children engaging in playful interactions, often in the form of physical play such as rough and tumble. Second, whilst findings are mixed, on balance the evidence suggests that fathers’ play frequency increases from infancy to preschool age with a subsequent decline in play as children reach early- middle childhood. Third, studies investigating links between fathers’ play and child outcomes suggest that fathers’ play in the early years can positively contribute to children’s social, emotional and cognitive outcomes. This potential for substantial benefit for children provides a clear imperative for policy makers and practitioners to facilitate and support fathers, as well as mothers, in developing more positive and playful interactions with their infants.

Father-child play, child emotional dysregulation, and adolescent internalizing symptoms: A longitudinal multiple mediation analysis.

Emerging literature suggests fathers may contribute uniquely to child development and emotional health through play. In the present study, a multiple mediational model was analyzed using data from 476 families that participated in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. After accounting for infant-mother attachment, infant temperament, and family income and stability, a significant indirect effect from father-child play quality to adolescent internalizing symptoms was found through father-reported child emotional dysregulation, B = -.05, 95% confidence interval; CI [-.14, -.01]. Specifically, in first grade, dyads where fathers were rated highly on sensitivity and stimulation during play, and children demonstrated high felt security and affective mutuality during play, had children with fewer father-reported emotional dysregulation problems in third grade, B = -.23, 95% CI [-.39, -.06]. Children with fewer emotional dysregulation problems had lower self-reported internalizing symptoms at age 15, B = .23, 95% CI [.01, .45]. Mothers' ratings of children's emotional dysregulation were not a significant mediator. Results are discussed regarding the importance of father-child play for children's adjustment as well as the usefulness of inclusion of fathers in child developmental research.

FATHER PLAY: IS IT SPECIAL?

Both mothers and fathers play with their children, but research on parent-child play interactions is conducted with mothers three times more often than it is with fathers. The articles in this special issue address this gap by focusing on the nature and quality of father-child play, across cultural contexts, and considering whether father play offers something unique and special for early human development, in infancy or early childhood. The studies show that fathers can be just as developmentally supportive as are mothers in terms of being playful and engaged with their children in ways that are related to greater child socioemotional competence, emotion regulation, and vocabulary, and to less aggression, anxiety, and negativity. We encourage future research to examine the cultural influences, family system dynamics, and specificity of timing and types of father-child play in relation to children's developmental competence.

MOTHER-CHILD AND FATHER-CHILD PLAY INTERACTION: THE IMPORTANCE OF PARENTAL PLAYFULNESS AS A MODERATOR OF THE LINKS BETWEEN PARENTAL BEHAVIOR AND CHILD NEGATIVITY.

Based on the premise that father-child play is an important context for children's development and that fathers "specialize" in play, similarities and differences in the role of playfulness in the father-child and mother-child relationship were examined. Participants in this study included 111 families (children's age: 1-3 years). Father-child and mother-child play interactions were videotaped and coded for parental playfulness, sensitivity, structuring, and nonintrusiveness as well as child negativity. Results indicated that mothers and fathers did not differ in playfulness and that mothers and fathers who were higher in playfulness had children with lower levels of negativity. However, playfulness differently moderated the links between parents' and children's behaviors for mothers and fathers. A double-risk pattern was found for mothers, such that the links between child negativity and maternal sensitivity, structuring, and nonintrusiveness were significant only for the subgroup of mothers with low levels of playfulness. When mothers had high levels of playfulness, these effects were negligible. For fathers, a double-buffer pattern was revealed, indicating that the links between child negativity and paternal sensitivity and structuring were significant only for fathers with high levels of playfulness. When fathers had low levels of playfulness, these effects were negligible. These findings demonstrate the important role that parental playfulness has on parent-child interaction as well as the need to examine moderation patterns separately for fathers and mothers.

MEASUREMENT OF FATHER-CHILD ROUGH-AND-TUMBLE PLAY AND ITS RELATIONS TO CHILD BEHAVIOR.

Although there is increasing evidence of paternal influence on child outcomes such as language and cognition, researchers are not yet clear on the features of father-child play that are most valuable in terms of child development. Physical play such as rough and tumble play (RTP) is a favored type of father-child play in Western societies that has been linked to children's socioemotional competence. It is important, therefore, to determine the implications of this play for child development. In this review and meta-analysis, associations between father-child physical play and child behavior were examined. The review also focused on study methods. Sixteen studies are reviewed, N = 1,521 father-child dyads, 35% boys. Study characteristics such as definitions of physical play, play settings, play measures, and coding were examined. The meta-analysis found weak to moderate population effects for links between father-child physical play and child aggression, social competence, emotional skills, and self-regulation. Research investigating the effect of father-child physical play on children's development will be improved when definitions clearly identify the nature of play, settings facilitate boisterous play, and measures include frequency and quality of play interactions. This play shows promise as an enhancer of positive father-child relationships and a catalyst for child development.

Fathers' Perceptions of Rough-and-Tumble Play: Implications for Early Childhood Services

FATHER–CHILD PLAY THAT is physical, vigorous and highly stimulating and that simulates fighting (rough-and-tumble play [RTP]) has been suggested as a key aspect of male parenting that is important for child development. Evidence from animal studies suggests that RTP can stimulate brain development in juveniles leading to improved cognitive performance. However, RTP in humans has only recently been investigated and fathers' views of RTP have not been identified. Following a weight-loss program involving fathers, their children and RTP, semi-structured interviews were held with 16 fathers. Most fathers identified the active, physical, competitive games within RTP as enhancing the father–child relationship and benefiting their child's development. Allowing the child to win, by the fathers' self-handicapping in the competitive bouts, was not only recognised as enjoyable, especially to the child, but as strengthening the bond between father and child. Fathers also felt that defeating the child occasionally was important and appropriate for the child's healthy social and psychological development. Similarly, risk was seen not only in terms of immediate injury but also as something for the child to learn in order to become competent as an adult. Implications of this research for early childhood professionals' encouragement of physical activity through their teaching role and while educating parents are discussed.

Relationships Between the Responsiveness of Fathers and Mothers and the Object Play Skills of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders

In this observational study, the concurrent relationships between the verbal and play responsiveness of 16 mothers and fathers and the object play skills of 16 children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) were investigated. First, the frequencies of children’s play at four levels (i.e., exploratory, relational, functional, and symbolic) across unsupported, mother–child, and father–child play conditions were compared. Next, relationships between mothers’ and fathers’ verbal responsiveness and the object play skills of their children with ASD were examined. Finally, relationships between parents’ play responsiveness and child object play skills were also examined. The results revealed several key findings. Children in the study tended to engage in more relational play with mothers than in unsupported play or play with fathers. For both fathers and mothers, use of responsive verbal behaviors was strongly correlated with higher level object play; however, use of responsive play behaviors was correlated with higher level object play only for fathers. The findings provide a foundation for longitudinal investigations to examine the associations between parental responsive strategies and child play and other developmental outcomes across time as well as for intervention studies to evaluate the efficacy of targeting parent responsiveness to children’s play as an intervention strategy for young children with ASD.

Short-term changes in fathers' hormones during father–child play: Impacts of paternal attitudes and experience

Hormonal differences between fathers and non-fathers may reflect an effect of paternal care on hormones. However, few studies have evaluated the hormonal responses of fathers after interacting with their offspring. Here we report results of a 30-minute in-home experiment in which Filipino fathers played with their toddlers and consider whether paternal experience and men's perceptions of themselves as fathers affect hormonal changes. Fathers provided saliva and dried blood spot samples at baseline (B) and 30 (P30) and 60 (P60, saliva only) minutes after the interaction. We tested whether testosterone (T), cortisol (CORT), and prolactin (PRL) shifted after the intervention. In the total sample, T did not vary over the study period, while CORT declined from B to P30 and P60, and PRL also declined from B to P30. Fathers who spent more time in daily caregiving and men who thought their spouses evaluated them positively as parental caregivers experienced a larger decline in PRL (B to P30) compared to other fathers. First-time fathers also had larger declines in PRL compared to experienced fathers. Experienced fathers also showed a greater decline in CORT (B to P60) compared to first-time fathers. These results suggest that males' paternal experience and age of offspring affect hormonal responses to father–child play and that there is a psychobiological connection between men's perceptions of themselves as fathers and their hormonal responsivity to childcare.