Fat Sensation Research Articles

The Taste Liking Questionnaire (TasteLQ) – A tool for assessment of taste liking in the Danish population

This study aimed to develop and validate a Taste Liking Questionnaire (TasteLQ) to measure the liking of taste and oral sensations represented by food items in the Danish adult population. Food items adapted to the Danish culture were selected to represent five basic tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami), fat sensation and two oral sensations (astringency and pungency). The reliability and validity of the TasteLQ were assessed in a multi-step process. The list of selected items was refined by an expert panel and subsequently clustered based on taste and sensation intensity ratings confirming their singularity for each modality. TasteLQ was found to be clear and quick to complete with a good test–retest reliability. In a hedonic liking evaluation (n = 38), moderate agreement was found between questionnaire-based taste liking scores and direct measurements of taste liking. Construct validity of each intensity-derived modality was evaluated in Danish participants (n = 7,201). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis revealed one, two, and three-factor structures with adequate fit of the tested models. The majority of identified factors displayed an acceptable to good internal consistency reliability. Factor analysis led to the exclusion of four items consequently yielding a final 44-item questionnaire. In conclusion, TasteLQ is a valid and feasible tool to measure taste and sensation liking in Danish adults. The questionnaire can be implemented in large-scale studies from which valuable insight to the role of taste liking in food choice, eating behavior, and disease risk factors can be gained.

Valorization of Potato Peel Waste as Natural Additive for Use in Meat Products

Potato peel is a waste generated in large amounts in the food industry; however, it has been shown that these residues are an important source of antioxidant compounds. The effect of potato peel powder addition (2, 5, and 10%) on the physicochemical, sensory, and antioxidant status of pork patties during refrigerated storage (2 °C/9 days/under dark) was evaluated. Polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of potato peel powder ethanol extract were determined. Pork patties were subjected to proximate chemical composition, physicochemical, and sensory evaluations. Results showed that potato peel ethanol extract at the highest used concentration (500 µg/mL) is an important source of total phenolic (>50 mg gallic acid equivalents/g) and chlorogenic acid compounds (ca. 40 mg chlorogenic acid equivalents/g) and exerts free radical scavenging (>50% of DPPH inhibition) and reducing power activity (<0.5 abs) (p < 0.05). Additionally, potato peel powder incorporation in raw pork patties reduces changes in pH, lipid oxidation, water-holding capacity, cooking loss weight, and color values during storage. Although an effect was observed on texture and sensory values (color and appearance) of raw patties, depending on addition level (p < 0.05), no differences were found in color appearance, odor, flavor, juiciness, fat sensation, texture, and overall acceptability of cooked patties between treatments (p > 0.05). The use of potato peel powder as a natural antioxidant for meat products is recommended.

Taste of Modern Diets: The Impact of Food Processing on Nutrient Sensing and Dietary Energy Intake

BackgroundBoth fresh and processed foods are available in the modern food environment where taste can signal presence of nutrients. However, whether these taste–nutrient relationships are maintained across different degrees of food processing is not well understood, and less is known about the relative contribution of different taste qualities to population energy intakes. ObjectivesTo investigate the association between perceived intensity of 6 taste modalities and a food's nutrient content in the context of food processing and to further examine the relative contribution of different taste clusters to total energy intakes, stratified by weight status. MethodsDiet and lifestyle data from the Singapore Multi-Ethnic Cohort Phase 2 (N = 7011; aged 21–75 y) were collected through interviewer-administrated questionnaires. Taste and nutrient profiles for each of the 269 Singaporean foods were derived using a published taste database and food composition table. Each food was then categorized into the NOVA food-processing classification (unprocessed, processed, ultra-processed) to compare the strength of taste–nutrient relationships. Multivariable-adjusted models were used to examine associations between relative consumption of foods from different taste clusters and processing categories, energy intake, and BMI (in kg/m2) within a population cohort. ResultsSweet taste and mono- and disaccharide content of foods were significantly associated across all processing categories, although this association was weaker among ultra-processed foods (UPFs) (r = 0.42) than among unprocessed foods (r = 0.72). In contrast, associations between fat sensation and fat content (r = 0.74), as well as salt taste and sodium content (r = 0.84), were stronger for UPFs. Individuals who had higher energy intakes or were overweight (BMI >23) derived significantly greater percentage of energy from processed foods rather than UPFs, and this energy was higher from “savory–fatty” and lower from “neutral” tasting foods than those with lower energy intakes and normal weight (all P < 0.001). Eighty percent of individuals’ dietary energy was from both “savory–fatty” and “neutral” foods, independent of differences in total energy intake and weight status. ConclusionsTaste–nutrient relationships are maintained across different degrees of food processing. Greater consumption of foods that have a high “savory–fatty” taste was associated with increased energy intakes and overweight in the Asian population.

Fat Restriction At Various Developmental Periods Cause Different Modulations On The Lingual Fatty Acid Binding Proteins

Background: The origin of food preferences can be associated with early food experience and lingual fatty taste receptors have a vital role in fat sensation. Objective: To determine the effect of fat restriction during maternal and/or maturation periods on oro-sensoral perception of fats, fatty taste preference and expression of CD36 and GPR120 in circumvallate papillae of male offspring Sprague Dawley rats. Methods: In our study, rats were exposed to control diet (C)(13% energy-from-fat) and low-fat diet (LFD)(3% energy-from-fat) during the gestation- lactation (21 days-21 day) and maturation (120 days) periods. Experimental groups were C/C (n=6), C/LFD (n=8), LFD/C (n=6) and LFD/LFD (n=8). Animal weight, energy and fat intake of the offsprings were followed during the study. The fat perception of the rats were measured by behavioral tests. The plasma insulin and leptin levels were determined with ELISA. Blood glucose and triglyceride levels were measured by metabolic analyzer. The protein and mRNA expressions of CD36 and GPR120 in the circumvallate papillae were determined by western blotting, immunofluorescence, and RT-PCR. Results: This study has demonstrated that C/LFD group rats have significantly increased preference to 2% rapeseed oil solution than C/C group (p<0.05). Consistently, lingual CD36 and GPR120 expressions are significantly lower in C/LFD group (p<0.05). In addition, LFD administration during maternal period in LFD/C and LFD/LFD groups caused to significantly increased expression of lingual CD36 and GPR120 (p<0.05). Conclusion: This study has been contributed to identify the developmental dysregulations of the oro-sensoral signaling pathways and abnormal fatty taste perception.

The Effects of Maternal High Fat Diet on the Lingual CD36 Lipid Sensors of the Offspring Sprague Dawley Rats

Background: Recent studies have demonstrated that CD36 lingual fat sensor has a vital role in fat sensation and high fat diet (HFD) causes dysfunctions in oro-gustatory lipid sensors. Objective: This study aims to investigate the effects of HFD during maternal and /or maturation period on lingual CD36 expression in offspring rats. Methods: Initially, female Sprague Dawley rats were familiarized to experimental diets. After the mating period, pregnant rats were fed with control (C) and HFD during the maternal period. Then, offsprings in each group were fed with C and HFD during the maturation period (120 days). Daily caloric intake and weekly weight measurements of the offspring rats were followed. The plasma insulin and leptin levels were determined with ELISA. Blood glucose and triglyceride levels were measured. The protein and mRNA expressions of CD36 in the circumvallate papillae (CVP) were determined by western blotting, immunofluorescence, and RT-PCR. Also, alpha-gustducin was used as taste marker. Results: According to biochemical measurements, HFD/HFD group offsprings have significantly increased plasma insulin and leptin concentrations compared to C/C group (p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively). CD36 protein expressions in CVP were significantly lower in HFD/HFD than C/HFD and HFD/C groups (p<0.05). Consistently, CD36 in taste buds had weak immunofluorescence signal in HFD/HFD group. However, mRNA transcripts level of CD36 in HFD/HFD group were significantly higher than C/HFD group (p<0.05). Conclusion: This study suggests that HFD exposure during both maternal and/or maturation period may affect the expression of lingual taste sensor level.

Sensory perception and psychological aspects of eating behavior: factors influencing fat hedonics in Malaysia

Understanding the causes of obesity epidemic requires examination of what contributes to preference of palatable foods. Using a sensorial-consumer approach, this research examined the relationship between the sensation of the hedonic liking of fat with psychological and weight profiles. The study began with preliminary testing of the hedonic ratings of 24 food items (12 low fat (LF), 12 high fat(HF)) and completion of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R18) investigating cognitive restraint, uncontrolled eating and emotional eating aspects. Eight (8) out of the twelve (12) food pairs that had discriminating characteristics were selected, for inclusion in the study, by 347 panellists. Results showed that overweight individuals had significantly lower liking towards LF sensation (4.27±2.13, p= 0.001) but significantly higher liking towards HF sensation (5.26±2.33, p= 0.001), compared to normal BMI individuals who had a significantly higher liking towards LF sensation (5.69±2.35, p= 0.001) but significantly lower liking towards HF sensation (4.17±2.40, p= 0.001). The Pearson product-moment correlation revealed similar trends on the association between liking of fat sensation and eating behaviour regardless of weight statuses. Specifically, cognitive restrainers were found to prefer the LF sensation while HF sensation were more favoured among uncontrolled and emotional eaters. This highlights the importance of investigating the combined effect of psychological aspects of eating behaviour and weight profiles towards liking of fat sensation.

Inclusion of Ethanol Extract of Mesquite Leaves to Enhance the Oxidative Stability of Pork Patties.

The lipid oxidation (LOX) of pork meat has been associated with loss of quality and shorter shelf life. Consequently, synthetic antioxidants have been used to reduce this process, but their use has shown potential health risks. Thus, the use of natural ingredients has been suggested as a strategy to prevent LOX. This study aimed to assess the oxidative stability of pork patties treated with ethanol extract of mesquite leaf (EEML) during storage. Furthermore, the polyphenol composition (TPC, total phenolic, TFC, total flavonoid) and antioxidant activity (antiradical and reducing power activity) of EEML were also evaluated. For this study, five treatments (CN (control), without antioxidant; Asc, ascorbic acid 0.02%; BHT, butylated hydroxytoluene 0.02%; EEML1, 0.05%; and EEML2, 0.1%) of pork patties were applied. Patty samples were stored at 4 °C, and physicochemical parameters, lipid oxidation, total antioxidant capacity of the meat, and sensory analysis were evaluated at 0, 3, 7, and 10 days of storage. EEML presented high values of TPC (278.5 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g) and TFC (226.8 mg rutin equivalents (RE)/g) levels. The addition of EEML did not modify the chemical composition of the pork patties. On the other hand, colour parameters were affected by the inclusion of EEML in pork patties, presenting the lowest a* in the CN group compared to the other groups after 10 days storage. Lipid oxidation increased during the whole period, showing the lowest (P < 0.05) conjugated dienes and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values (40% and 90% of inhibition, respectively) compared to the CN group. Regarding sensory analysis, there were no significant differences in colour, appearance, odour, flavour, juiciness, fat sensation, and firmness of the cooked pork patties among treatments. These results suggest that EEML has great potential as a natural antioxidant for meat products.

Evaluation of dietary taste patterns as assessed by FFQ against 24-h recalls and biomarkers of exposure.

Taste is of key importance in food choice and dietary patterns, but studies on taste profiles are limited. We previously assessed dietary taste patterns by 24 h recalls (24hR), but for epidemiological studies food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) may also be suitable. This study compared dietary taste patterns based on FFQ against 24hR and biomarkers of exposure. A taste database including 467 foods' sweet, sour, bitter, salt, umami and fat sensation values was combined with food intake data to assess dietary taste patterns: the contribution to energy intake of 6 taste clusters. The FFQ's reliability was assessed against 3-d 24hR and urinary biomarkers for sodium (Na) and protein intake (N) in Dutch men (n = 449) and women (n = 397) from the NQplus validation study (mean age 53 ± 11 y, BMI 26 ± 4 kg/m2). Correlations of dietary taste patterns ranged from 0.39-0.68 between FFQ and 24hR (p < 0.05). Urinary Na levels, but not N levels, were positively associated with % energy intake from 'salt, umami & fat' tasting foods (Na; FFQ, r = 0.24, 24hR, r = 0.23, p < 0.001, N; FFQ, r = 0.08, p = 0.1394, 24hR, r = 0.05, p = 0.3427). The FFQ's reliability against 24hR was acceptable to good for ranking of adults' dietary taste patterns. Associations between dietary taste patterns and urinary Na and N were similar for FFQ and 24hR. These findings suggests that both FFQ and 24hR can be used in combination with our taste database, to investigate potential relationships between dietary taste patterns and subgroups at risk of obesity and chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease.

Nutrient sensing: What can we learn from different tastes about the nutrient contents in today’s foods?

Tastes are often described as having a nutrient-signaling function eliciting expectations about the food and its nutrient content. The objectives of this work was to investigate correlations between taste intensity and nutrient content, to evaluate the impact of competing tastes on these relationships, and to know if the content in certain nutrients could be inferred from a combination of tastes. The Food Taste Database (Martin et al., 2014) and a French Food Composition table (ANSES-Ciqual) were used to obtain a dataset combining sensory and nutritional information for 365 foods. Our results confirm the existence of several taste-nutrient relationships previously suggested by other works. Among direct relationships (dose-response type), we highlighted correlations between sweet taste intensity and mono-disaccharide content, salty taste and sodium content, sour taste and organic acid content, and fat sensation and lipid content. A link between protein content and umami taste intensity was also found. We demonstrated that direct taste-nutrient relationships (dose-response) were not equally modulated by the intensity of competing tastes and that these interactions could partly explain why the association between some nutrients well-known for their taste properties and the intensity of the corresponding tastes is often of less good quality than expected. Finally, limiting our conclusion to the 51 nutrients and 365 foods studied, we demonstrate that the probability of finding nutrients was theoretically higher in fat, salty and sweet food products. However, this general statement needs to be qualified when considering the degree of food processing, in particular for ultra-processed foods.

Similar taste-nutrient relationships in commonly consumed Dutch and Malaysian foods

Three recent studies showed that taste intensity signals nutrient content. However, current data reflects only the food patterns in Western societies. No study has yet been performed in Asian culture. The Malaysian cuisine represents a mixture of Malay, Chinese and Indian foods. This study aimed to investigate the associations between taste intensity and nutrient content in commonly consumed Dutch (NL) and Malaysian (MY) foods. Perceived intensities of sweetness, sourness, bitterness, umami, saltiness and fat sensation were assessed for 469 Dutch and 423 Malaysian commonly consumed foods representing about 83% and 88% of an individual's average daily energy intake in each respective country. We used a trained Dutch (n = 15) and Malaysian panel (n = 20) with quantitative sensory Spectrum™ 100-point rating scales and reference solutions, R1 (13-point), R2 (33-point) and R3 (67-point). Dutch and Malaysian foods had relatively low mean sourness and bitterness (<R1), but higher mean sweetness, saltiness and fat sensation (between R1 and R2). Mean umami taste intensity of Malaysian foods (15-point) was higher than that of Dutch foods (8-point). Positive associations were found between sweetness and mono- and disaccharides (R2 = 0.67 (NL), 0.38 (MY)), between umami and protein (R2 = 0.29 (NL), 0.26 (MY)), between saltiness and sodium (R2 = 0.48 (NL), 0.27 (MY)), and between fat sensation and fat content (R2 = 0.56 (NL), 0.17(MY)) in Dutch and Malaysian foods (all, p < 0.001). The associations between taste intensity and nutrient content are not different between different countries, except for fat sensation-fat content. The two dimensional basic taste-nutrient space, representing the variance and associations between tastes and nutrients, is similar between Dutch and Malaysian commonly consumed foods.

Training of a Dutch and Malaysian sensory panel to assess intensities of basic tastes and fat sensation of commonly consumed foods

Taste has a nutrient sensing function and guides food choices. Therefore, investigating taste profiles of dietary patterns – within and across cultures – is highly relevant for nutritional research. However, this demands for accurately described food-taste databases, which are supported with data on the reliability and performance of the sensory panel that determined the taste values.This study aimed to assess the performance of a trained Dutch and Malaysian sensory panel. More importantly, we assessed whether the standardized training procedure in the two countries yielded similar taste profiles with respect to 15 basic taste solutions, and 19 foods differing in tastes.A Dutch (n = 15) and Malaysian panel (n = 20) were trained for 56–63 h, using basic taste solutions and reference foods on 6 scales, i.e. sweetness, sourness, bitterness, umami, saltiness and fat sensation. Performance of both panels was described by discrimination, repeatability (RMSE), and agreement. Nineteen products with different sensory characteristics were profiled in the Netherlands and Malaysia; subsequently the obtained taste profiles were compared.Both panels were able to discriminate between solutions and products (all p < .001). A vast majority of the taste values could be reproduced; the RMSEs of the different taste values varied between 2.3 and 13.3%. Panel agreement was achieved after the training with solutions; however not for all attributes of the reference foods. Some taste values of the 19 foods were significantly different, however most of these differences were small (<10points).Our descriptive training procedure yielded two panels from different cultures that were similar in panel performance. More importantly, they obtained similar taste profiles for 19 different foods. This implies that food-taste databases obtained with valid and standardized training procedures may be used to quantify the sensory profiles of dietary patterns of populations.

Fat Sensation: Fatty Acid Taste and Olfaction Sensitivity and the Link with Disinhibited Eating Behaviour.

Perception of fat taste, aroma, and texture are proposed to influence food preferences, thus shaping dietary intake and eating behaviour and consequently long-term health. In this study, we investigated associations between fatty acid taste, olfaction, mouthfeel of fat, dietary intake, eating behaviour, and body mass index (BMI). Fifty women attended three sessions to assess oleic acid taste and olfaction thresholds, the olfactory threshold for n-butanol and subjective mouthfeel ratings of custard samples. Dietary intake and eating behaviour were evaluated using a Food Frequency and Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire, respectively. Binomial regression analysis was used to model fat taste and olfaction data. Taste and olfactory detection for oleic acid were positively correlated (r = 0.325; p < 0.02). Oleic acid taste hypersensitive women had significantly increased n-butanol olfactory sensitivity (p < 0.03). The eating behaviour disinhibition and BMI were higher in women who were hyposensitive to oleic acid taste (p < 0.05). Dietary intake of nuts, nut spreads, and seeds were significantly correlated with high olfactory sensitivity to oleic acid (p < 0.01). These findings demonstrate a clear link between fatty acid taste sensitivity and olfaction and suggest that fat taste perception is associated with specific characteristics of eating behaviour and body composition.

Liking for fat is associated with sociodemographic, psychological, lifestyle and health characteristics.

Sensory liking influences dietary behaviour, but little is known about specifically associated individual profiles. The aim of the present study was to investigate the associations between liking for fat-and-salt and fat-and-sweet sensations and sociodemographic, economic, psychological, lifestyle and health characteristics in a large sample. Individual characteristics and liking scores were collected by a questionnaire among 37,181 French adults. Liking scores were constructed using a validated preference questionnaire. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to assess the associations between liking levels and individual characteristics. In both sexes, subjects belonging to low-level occupational categories (OR 1·39, 95% CI 1·16, 1·67 in men; OR 1·28, 95% CI 1·16, 1·41 in women), highly uncontrolled eaters (men: OR 2·90, 95% CI 2·60, 3·23; women: OR 2·73, 95% CI 2·27, 3·30) and obese subjects (men: OR 1·45, 95% CI 1·14, 1·84; women: OR 1·47, 95% CI 1·29, 1·68) were more likely to have a strong liking for the fat-and-sweet sensation, whereas older individuals (men: OR 0·13, 95% CI 0·10, 0·16; women: OR 0·11, 95% CI 0·09, 0·14) and highly cognitive restrainers (men: OR 0·52, 95% CI 0·44, 0·63; women: OR 0·60, 95% CI 0·55, 0·66) were less likely to have a strong liking. Regarding liking for the fat-and-salt sensation, the same associations were found and specific relationships were also highlighted: current smokers and heavy drinkers were more likely to strongly prefer the fat-and-salt sensation compared with non-smokers and abstainers or irregular alcohol consumers. The relationship between individual characteristics and a liking for fat sensation provides new and original information that may be useful for a better understanding of the associations between sensory liking and individual behaviour.

Creation of a food taste database using an in-home “taste” profile method

The purpose of this study was to create a food ‘taste’ database using an innovative in-home profile method. The five basic tastes and fat sensation were studied. The proposed method consisted in an intensive training in laboratory (55h, 5months) immediately followed by an in-home measurements phase (8months) during which 12 trained panelists had to evaluate the five tastes and fat sensation of the foods they typically consumed. The rating scales were inspired by scales used in the Spectrum™ method. During the in-home measurement phase, ratings were reported thanks to a web-based tool and each month the panelists returned to the laboratory for a 2-h retraining session.The results showed that the proposed method could lead to results of good quality compared to those obtained in laboratory. Over the in-home measurements period, 590 foods were described (average number of evaluations by food: 8.7). Six major classes of foods were identified on the basis of tastes and fat sensation perceptions enabling a “sensory” classification of foods to be proposed. The food contributors of high intensities were also highlighted, contributing to have an overview on the sensory sapid world we face in our diet. Linking this sensory database with other types of data on food opens new perspectives in nutrition and epidemiology.