Fat-free Basis Research Articles

Effects of beta-mannanase addition to corn-soybean meal diets on growth performance, carcass traits, and nutrient digestibility of weanling and growing-finishing pigs.

Four experiments were conducted to determine the effects of adding a beta-mannanase preparation (Hemicell, ChemGen, Gaithersburg, MD) to corn-soybean meal-based diets on growth performance and nutrient digestibility of weanling and growing-finishing pigs. In Exp. 1, 156 weanling pigs (20 d, 6.27 kg BW) were allotted to four dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design. Treatments were a factorial arrangement of diet complexity (complex vs simple) and addition of 3-mannanase preparation (0 vs 0.05%). Pigs were fed in three dietary phases (Phase 1, d 0 to 14; Phase 2, d 14 to 28; and Phase 3, d 28 to 42). Pigs fed complex diets gained faster and were more efficient (P < 0.05) during Phase 1 compared with pigs fed simple diets. Overall, gain:feed ratio (G:F) tended to be improved (P < 0.10) for pigs fed complex diets and it was improved (P < 0.01) for those fed diets with beta-mannanase. In Exp. 2, 117 pigs (44 d, 13.62 kg BW) were allotted randomly to three dietary treatments. Dietary treatments were 1) a corn-soybean meal-based control, 2) the control diet with soybean oil added to increase metabolizable energy (ME) by 100 kcal/kg, and 3) the control diet with 0.05% beta-mannanase preparation. Beta-mannanase or soybean oil improved (P < 0.05) G:F compared with pigs fed the control diet. In Exp. 3, 60 pigs (22.5 kg BW) were allotted randomly to the three dietary treatments used in Exp. 2. Dietary treatments were fed in three phases (23 to 53 kg, 53 to 82 kg, and 82 to 109 kg with 0.95, 0.80, and 0.65% lysine, respectively). Overall, the addition of soybean oil tended to improve G:F (P < 0.10) compared with that of pigs fed the control diet, and G:F was similar (P > 0.54) for pigs fed diets with soybean oil or beta-mannanase. Also, addition of beta-mannanase increased ADG (P < 0.05) compared with that of pigs fed the control or soybean oil diets. There were no differences (P > or = 0.10) in longissimus muscle area or backfat; however, on a fat-free basis, pigs fed the diet with beta-mannanase had greater (P < 0.05) lean gain than pigs fed the control or soybean oil diets. In Exp. 4, 12 barrows (93 kg BW) were allotted randomly to one of the three dietary treatments used in Exp. 3. Addition of 3-mannanase had no effect (P > 0.10) on energy, nitrogen, phosphorus, or dry matter digestibility. These results suggest that beta-mannanase may improve growth performance in weanling and growing-finishing pigs but has minimal effects on nutrient digestibility.

Water Partitioning in Mozzarella Cheese and Its Relationship to Cheese Meltability

The aim of this study was to determine what happens to water in Mozzarella cheeses during storage and to relate those changes to cheese microstructure and functionality. A reduced fat (8% fat) Mozzarella cheese and a control cheese with 19% fat were made and evaluated over 21 d of refrigerated storage at 4°C. Fat, protein, ash, salt, and water were measured on d 1. Meltability, total water, freezable water, and expressible water were measured on d 1, 7, 14, and 21. Even though the reduced fat cheese had a higher total water content than did the control cheese, the reduced fat cheese contained less water on a fat-free basis. The amount of water expressible at 25°C was higher in the control cheese than in the reduced fat cheese and was proportional to the fat content of the cheese. During storage, the expressed serum for both cheeses decreased to zero by d 21. Based on changes observed in microstructure of a commercial Mozzarella cheese (19% fat) during storage, we concluded that the expressed water was derived from water contained in the fat-serum channels that were interspersed throughout the protein matrix. The amount of bound water was lower in the control cheese than in the reduced fat cheese and was proportional to the protein content of the cheese. Bound water levels remained constant throughout storage. During storage of the commercial Mozzarella cheese, the fat-serum channels became smaller with the protein matrix expanding into the areas between the fat globules. By d 21, the fat globules were completely encased by the protein matrix. This expansion of the protein matrix in the commercial cheese occurred over the same time span as the decrease in expressible water of the experimental cheese and indicated that the protein matrix was absorbing the water originally located in the fat-serum channels. Because no change in bound water was observed, the water that had been expressible at d 1 was being absorbed into the protein matrix as entrapped water. The meltability of both cheeses increased during storage while the percentage of entrapped water increased.

Nitrogen factors for sheepmeat. Part 2. Lamb meat. Analytical Methods Committee.

Nitrogen factors (the percentage nitrogen on a fat-free basis) for lamb meat were estimated using a total of 81 lamb carcases from the UK. The samples included carcases representative of the EU class ranges for conformation and fatness. The sampling period extended over one year in order to include the three age groups under which lamb meat is marketed. The results obtained were compared with those reported for mutton in Part 1 of this study and a factor of 3.50 for the whole side, on a fat-free basis, for the lean with intermuscular fat was recommended as an overall figure for mutton and lamb. There were significant differences between the factors for some joints and different factors were recommended for use when the type of joint used was known.

Effects of Feeding Varying Dietary Formulations on Body Composition of Rohu Fry

Investigations on the growth and body composition of rohu, Laboo rohita (Ham.), try fed diets containing graded levels of fish meal compounded with different cakes and rice bran were conducted in a 6-week laboratory trial. The fry showed 80.65-109.68% weight gains with excess carcass lipid (13-20%) and energy (1.22-1.61 kcal/g) and a fall in carcass protein (6-16%) from their initial levels. On fat-free basis, protein in fish, however, was not affected by the dietary treatments.

Nitrogen factors for sheepmeat. Part 1. Mutton

Nitrogen factors (the percentage of nitrogen on a fat-free basis) for mutton were estimated using a total of 45 ewe carcases from the UK. The samples included carcases representative of the EU class ranges for conformation and fatness. The AMC will make recommendations on nitrogen factors for sheepmeat when the second paper, ‘Nitrogen Factors for Sheepmeat. Part 2. Lamb’ is published. However, results for mutton indicate that the factor for lean meat in the whole side was 3.47. Factors for the fore- and hind-quarters did not differ significantly.

Nitrogen factors for beef: a reassessment

Nitrogen factors (the percentage of nitrogen on a fat-free basis) for beef were estimated using a total of 43 clean beef carcases and 30 cull cow carcases from six commercial abattoirs. The sample included carcases representative of the European Community classification ranges for fatness and conformation. The nitrogen factors for the lean meat with intermuscular fat for the whole sides of clean beef and cull cow beef were 3.65 and 3.70, respectively. For beef generally, a nitrogen factor of 3.65 is recommended for use in the analysis of beef and beef products. Nitrogen factors for different commercial joints differed significantly and the appropriate joint value should be used where the nature of the joint is known. Those for cull cow beef were generally higher than those for clean beef. All factors estimated were higher than 3.55, the value recommended for beef by the Analytical Methods Committee in 1963. Fat, moisture, ash, hydroxyproline and nitrogen contents in each joint and also in the side are reported in this paper.

Effects of cooking methods on thiamin and riboflavin contents of chicken meat

Broiler meat (light and dark) was cooked by roasting, braising, deep-frying and microwave methods and cooking yield, moisture, fat, thiamin and riboflavin contents of the meat, before and after cooking), were determined. Light and dark muscles differed significantly in moisture, fat, thiamin and riboflavin contents. Generally, moisture and fat contents of broiler meat were significantly decreased by cooking, but the fat content of the dark muscles showed no significant change when cooked by microwave. All cooked meats were significantly lower ( p < 0·05) in thiamin content than raw meat. Cooking had no significant effects on riboflavin content of dark meat on fresh weight or dry weight fat-free basis (FW and DWF), but in light meat, the riboflavin content decreased significantly (DWFF) when cooked by frying. While thiamin retention (DWFF) ranged from 28 to 64%, riboflavin was fairly well retained (46–94%) in cooked broiler meat. Differences were observed in the retentions of both vitamins of cooked meats suggesting that there were differences in the effects of the four cooking methods evaluated.

Body composition changes in white-tailed deer fawns during winter

Sixteen white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns were captured near Chicago, Illinois, between November and April, and their body composition was determined, to investigate changes in body composition and chemical component distribution as they catabolized tissues over the winter. Live weights of the fawns ranged from 16.8 to 41.6 kg (31.1 ± 2.0), and ether-extractable fat concentration of the bled, ingesta-free body ranged from 2.3 to 48.9% (24.5 ± 4.7) on a dry basis. Carcass, viscera, and hide contained, on average, 70, 21, and 9% of the bled, whole body fat, respectively. Above approximately 15% whole body fat (dry basis), the percentages of whole body fat contributed by the viscera and carcass increased and decreased, respectively. Body composition (blood-, ingesta-, and fat-free basis) averaged 72% water, 23% crude protein, and 5% ash; ash and phosphorus concentrations increased and protein concentration decreased over the winter. Sodium concentration tended to decrease. Based on relationships between chemical components and body weight, the composition of weight lost during winter was calculated to range from 12% water, 84% fat, 4% protein, and 0.5% ash during early winter to 73% water, 0.3% fat, 25% protein, and 2% ash during early spring. Calculated metabolizable energy derived from tissue catabolism was a quadratic function of body weight and ranged from 7.7 to 1.1 Mcal/kg of bled, ingesta-free weight loss during early and late periods.

Thiamin Retention and Other Characteristics of Cooked Beef Loin Roasts

ABSTRACTBeef loin roasts were prepared by three procedures that simulated home, foodservice or commercial methods for precooking meat prior to vacuum packaging. Roasts were prepared by conventional electric (176.5°C), cook‐in‐package waterbath (70°C water), or smokehouse (ambient temperature) heating. Yield, thiamin, fat, water content, and Instron tenderness of roasts were determined. Raw roasts had higher (P&lt;0.05) water and free water content. All cooked roasts were significantly lower in thiamin content (dry, fat free basis) and thiamin retention (true and dry, fat free basis) than raw roasts (P&lt;0.05). No differences were observed between cooking procedures evaluated (P&gt;0.05), suggesting that most heat processing treatments used for precooking packaged meat result in similar quality products.

Comparative Evaluation of Fermented Fish Waste, Fermented Whole Herring, and Fish Meal

Various biological assays were used to compare the nutritional qualities of fermented fish waste, fermented whole herring, and herring fish meal. Samples of each product were analyzed for proximate constituents and lipid classes as well as for their fatty-acid profile and amino-acid composition. Each ingredient was incorporated at the 5% or 10% level into balanced diets for a 28-day growth trial using broiler chicks.Fermented fish waste and fermented herring, with high contents of lipids, showed considerable lipolysis which must have occurred during the fermentation process. In comparison with herring fish meal, there was a large reduction in content of omega-3 fatty acids in the lipids of the fermented fish products. The protein content of the fermented fish products, expressed on a fat-free basis, was very high; the amino-acid profile was excellent. The three fish products sustained significantly different (P<.05), average feed:gain ratios in broiler chicks. The highest such ratio was associated with the chicks fed fermented herring.

The influence of sex-class, USDA yield grade and USDA quality grade on seam fat trim from the primals of beef carcasses.

Beef carcasses (129 steers and 80 heifers) differing in weight, muscling, fatness and marbling score were selected to represent the full spectrum of USDA yield grades; one side was fabricated into boneless primal cuts. Primals were trimmed of all external fat and intermuscular (seam) fat and all components were weighed. Regression equations were developed to predict the percentage of seam fat on an external fat-free primal basis using USDA yield grade (YG), marbling score and a squared function of YG as the independent variables. YG (.77) and marbling score (.67) were highly correlated to seam fat. Heifers tended to have a higher predicted percentage of seam fat than did steers across all YG. Primals from USDA Choice carcasses had approximately 1.0 percentage point more predicted seam fat than did USDA Select primals at the same YG and sex-class. The YG 2.5 heifers had similar proportions of predicted seam fat from primals as YG 3.5 steers, but YG 3.5 heifers tended to have more seam fat than YG 4.5 steers. The same trend was noted between YG 4.5 heifers and YG 5.5 steers, indicating a sex-related deposition of seam fat in fed cattle.

Effect of growth rate on mineral retention and body composition of growing lambs

ABSTRACTGroups of wether lambs were grown at different rates from about 24 kg live weight to 50 kg, by feeding them different amounts of the same concentrate diet. The slow growing lambs had higher contents of protein, ash, calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P), and less fat and magnesium (Mg) than other groups. Differences in composition were significant between slow (120 g/day) and fast growth (230 g/day; P &lt; 0-05) but not always between intermediate (160 g/day) and other growth rates. The differences became small and insignificant when data were expressed on a fat-free basis except for Mg which decreased with slow growth. Ash, for example, increased from 47 g/kg fat-free gain with fast growing animals to 54 g/kg with slow growth. Mg decreased from 0·44 g/kg fat-free gain with fast growth to 0·24 g/kg with slow growth. The data support the view that the ratio of ash to fat-free empty-body increases only slightly with age.The basic diet contained 3·9 g Ca per kg dry matter and the effect of a substantial supplement of calcium carbonate on lambs growing at the fast rate was to increase their retentions of ash, Ca and P by a factor greater than 1·25. There are alternative explanations for this finding. One possibility is that the availability of Ca in the basic diet had been reduced by unknown factors. It is also possible that the supplementary carbonate altered the acid/base status of the animals and resulted in conditions which favoured skeletal mineralization.

Thiamin Content of Chicken Muscle and Effect of Purification Variables on Determined Values

Experiments were conducted to investigate 1) effects of selected purification variables [flow rate, temperature, and volume of eluent using two resins, Decalso and Bio-Rex 70 (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, CA)] on the determined thiamin values of fried chicken and 2) effects of cooking methods on thiamin content of fast food-fried chicken breast muscle using a modified Association of Official Analytical Chemists method. With Decalso, a flow rate of less than 1 mL/min produced satisfactory recovery of thiamin in a standard solution of more than 94%; the use of a faster flow rate of more than 1.5 mL/min resulted in a low recovery value (around 82%). Hot eluent temperature significantly increased thiamin recovery from 90.1 to 99.4%. Thiamin recovery from the Bio-Rex 70 was affected minimally by eluent flow rate, eluent temperature, and eluent volume. A recovery value of about 97% was obtained from the Bio-Rex 70 at all flow rates, with the highest value at 1.5 mL/min. Generally, the use of Bio-Rex 70 resulted in slightly lower determined thiamin values for fried chicken meat but higher and more consistent recovery of a standard thiamin solution than the use of Decalso. The thiamin contents of chicken breast muscles cooked by the two methods were not significantly different (pressure-fried chicken, .207; open vat-fried chicken, .239 mg/100 g on a moisture and fat-free basis).

Mineral Composition of Selected Bovine, Porcine and Avian Muscles, and Meat Products

ABSTRACTTHE MINERAL CONTENT of young and old avian muscles, in mature bovine and porcine tissues destined for processing, and in selected meat products and additives was determined. Inter‐ and intra‐species variations in mineral composition were found among all the muscle tissues investigated. Muscle‐to‐muscle variation was found to be highly significant for all but one of the minerals analyzed in the avian (K) and bovine (P) muscle tissues and all but three (Fe, Ca, P) in the porcine tissues. The mineral content of three major meat products and four meat additives are reported. The least variability in tissue mineral content was found when the data was expressed on a dry weight, fat free basis.

The bacteriological quality, fat and collagen content of minced beef at retail level

Samples of minced (ground) beef were purchased on three occasions from seven supermarkets and eleven butcher's shops in one geographical area during winter. Total viable counts (at 37°C and 20°C), numbers of Enterobacteriaceae (at 37°C) and Escherichia coli biotype I were similar between shop type. No Salmonella spp. were detected. In general, bacterial counts were lower than in a similar survey four years previously. The fat and collagen content of the samples was also determined. In a previous survey, 37% of samples contained more than 25% fat, while, in this survey, only 17% of the samples exceeded that level. Collagen levels in the mince at retail ranged from 1·4% to 4·4% (1·5% to 5·1% on a wet fat-free basis).

Changes in swine body composition from birth to 145 kg.

An experiment using 81 crossbred swine was conducted to evaluate quantitative and percentage chemical compositional changes of swine from 1.5 kg (birth) to 145 kg body weight. Groups of eight pigs were sacrificed at 1.5, 6.4 and 18 kg, and then at 18 kg increments to 145 kg. Body composition was determined by grinding the entire body, minus digesta, partitioning the carcass from other body components and chemically analyzing each subsample. Results indicated that weight of the carcass increased linearly with live weight, while the total weight of the other body components increased quadratically. Percentage fat in the empty body (ingesta-free) increased rapidly from birth to weaning (6.4 kg), plateaued until 36 kg and then increased, while water percentage declined dramatically from 1.5 to 6.4 kg, but then declined more gradually to 145 kg. Percentage protein increased from birth to 18 kg, plateaued and declined after 54 kg. When expressed on a fat-free basis, the percentage water decreased in a curvilinear manner with increasing animal weight while protein increased curvilinearly inverse to the change in water. Constancy of composition ("chemical maturity") between protein and water in the fat-free body was not attained by 145 kg. When expressed on an absolute empty body basis, water, protein and fat weight increased curvilinearly with increasing empty body weight; the rate of fat deposition increased faster during the latter growth stages while water and protein had declining deposition rates. Logarithmic and quadratic equations relating body composition to animal weight had similar R2 and lower coefficients of variation than linear or semilog functions. Gilts contained more water and less fat than barrows at similar slaughter weights, but sex differences were not apparent when expressed on a fat-free basis. The growth and fattening process was reflected in several carcass measurements. Backfat thickness, longissimus muscle area and body length increased as pig weight increased.

Nutritional and oil characteristics of the seeds of angled Luffa Luffa acutangula

Luffa seeds (L. acutangula), a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, were investigated for their potential nutritional and oil characteristics. The yield of seeds from the fruit was 33·5%, while the kernel was found to possess 50% of the seed weight. The protein and fat contents of the kernel were 39% and 44%, respectively, and on a moisture and fat-free basis the kernel's protein content was 74·6%. The fatty acid profile indicates that the glycerides of oleic and linoleic acid constitute 68% of the total kernel oil. Iodine value, saponification value and acid value were 99·5, 190·8 and 10·5, respectively. The maximum melting and freezing points were −3 and −10°C, respectively. The seeds were also found to be a good source of certain amino acids, phosphorus, iron and magnesium.

Breeding and Production of Beef to Optimize Production Efficiency, Retail Product Percentage and Palatability Characteristics

The demand trend for beef with a higher percentage of lean is expected to continue at an accelerated rate. The trend toward more complete centralized processing at or near the point of slaughter will accelerate in order to gain efficiencies in transportation and labor and to add attractiveness and convenience to the product. Differences in efficiency of production of weaned calf weight are generally independent of cow size provided the nutritive environment is adequate to support reproduction. Maintenance requirements are greater for protein than for fat tissue. Differences in maintenance requirement are small between animals of the same weight and body composition. There is no evidence to support the concept that large genetic differences exist in shape of the growth curve if growth is considered on a fat free basis. Rank of different biological types of growing-finishing cattle in regard to feed efficiency is dependent upon interval of evaluation (time constant, gain constant or fat constant). Reducing the percentage of nutrients contributed by concentrate feed resources by one-half will result in little or no loss in beef palatability or in weight of retail product produced. More than 80% of the increased weight gain resulting from dietary energy densities above 2.7 Mcal metabolizable energy/kg dry matter is fat in growing-finishing steers. Yearling steers slaughtered off pasture without any concentrate feeding had longissimus muscle with lower palatability than steers fed concentrate feeds. However, after a feeding period of 49 d after removal from pasture, palatability characteristics of longissimus muscle were equal to those from steers fed for much longer periods. Differences in marbling score account for less than 10% of the variation in palatability attributes of young cattle produced in economically viable systems. Simultaneous selection for percentage of retail product and marbling score will not be effective for either character. When wholesale cuts are trimmed to a uniform degree of fatness as retail product, genetic differences in retail product percentage contributed by each wholesale cut are too small to justify a selection objective of increasing the percentage of the more preferred cuts. Crossbreeding systems to use both heterosis and complementarity can increase calf weight weaned by 7.75 to 12.1% with no increase in feed resources and with a small reduction in number of females in the beef breeding herd. Intact males produce 38% more edible product than castrate males/unit of digestible energy consumed. Much of the potential improvement in biological efficiency of beef production from growth, composition and reproduction is obtainable through heterosis and complementarity in crossbreeding systems and through production of intact males.

Mineral Composition of Muscles of 1- to 6-Year-Old Steers

The diaphragm, longissimus, psoas major, semitendinosus and transversus abdominus muscles from eight or nine Angus steers were evaluated at each age of slaughter including 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 48, 60 and 72 mo. The content of K, Fe, and Zn varied (P less than .01) with age of the steers. Ca, Na and Mg were not affected. The K content on a fat-free basis decreased from a high of 392 mg/100 g wet tissue at 24 mo of age to a low of 332 mg/100 g at 72 mo. Fe content increased with age from 2.00 mg/100 g of tissue at 12 mo to 3.73 mg/100 g at 72 mo. Concentrations of all minerals varied (P less than .01) among the five muscles evaluated. Feeding regimen had a significant effect on K, Fe and Zn, Steers fed entirely ad libitum had a higher K (17 mg/100 g more) and Fe (.19 mg/100 g more) content in their muscles than did the steers that were fed to gain .45 kg/d or those fed ad libitum for the last 6 mo before slaughter. Where significant, the magnitude of the difference in mineral content among age groups, muscles and feeding regimens was large enough to require that maturity, muscle and feeding regimen be specified when values for mineral content were reported.

Muscle: Bone ratios in beef rib sections

Thirty-eight steers and thirty heifers (14 to 17 months of age, from F 1 Hereford × Brahman cows bred to Angus or Hereford bulls), were either forage-fed for 123 days on millet-bermudagrass pasture or grain-fed for 90 days on a high-concentrate diet and were then commercially slaughtered. Warm carcass weights ranged from 167·8 kg to 324·3 kg. At 24 h post mortem, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station personnel (1) assigned scores or took measurements on each carcass for all factors used in yield grading and quality grading, (2) measured the length of hind leg (HL) and carcass length (CL) and (3) assigned a score for carcass muscling (MS) and, as appropriate, made an adjusted longissimus muscle area (ALA) evaluation. The 9th-10th-11th rib section from one side of each carcass was physically separated into longissimus muscle, fat, ‘other soft tissue’ and bone and ether extract determinations of the longissimus muscle and ‘other soft tissue’ components were made and used to adjust the yields of each of these components to a fat-free basis. Muscle to bone ratios ranged from 2·38 to 4·37. With both age and carcass weight held constant, diet, breed and sex explained only 35·8% of the variation in muscle to bone ratio. The best simple correlation with muscle to bone ratio was ALA/CL ( r = ·59). Other measures significantly correlated with muscle to bone ratio included ALA ( r = 0·55), MS ( r = 0·50) and carcass weight ( r = 0·49). Multiple regression analyses identified a three-variable subset comprised of ALA, carcass weight and CL which was related ( P < 0·01) to muscle to bone ratio R 2 = 0·41). Data suggest that muscle to bone ratios differ widely among beef carcasses of similar genetic-management history and that there are carcass measures useful for predicting muscle to bone ratio.