Fast Exchange Kinetics Research Articles

Improving the Si Impurity Tolerance of Pr0.1Ce0.9O2−δ SOFC Electrodes with Reactive Surface Additives

Fast oxygen exchange kinetics, a key figure of merit in solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) electrodes, is often dramatically hindered by the presence of even small concentrations of impurities, for example, Si which is common in ceramics processing. In this work, rapid degradation of oxygen exchange kinetics was found on dense thin films of Pr0.1Ce0.9O2−δ (PCO), a mixed ionic electronic conducting electrode for SOFCs, using a new optical transmission relaxation (OTR) technique which facilitates kinetics measurements of bare film surfaces (i.e., in the absence of current collectors typical of conventional measurements). Si was identified by TEM and XPS as a significant impurity, forming a blocking layer on the electrode surface. Full recovery of oxygen exchange kinetics on the measured samples was achieved after deposition of a La oxide film. Subsequent TEM studies indicate the formation of a porous La- and Si-containing film. Interaction between La and Si oxides was identified by a shift in the O 1s XPS peak an...

Hybrid supramolecular and colloidal hydrogels that bridge multiple length scales.

Hybrid nanocomposites were constructed based on colloidal nanofibrillar hydrogels with interpenetrating supramolecular hydrogels, displaying enhanced rheological yield strain and a synergistic improvement in storage modulus. The supramolecular hydrogel consists of naphthyl-functionalized hydroxyethyl cellulose and a cationic polystyrene derivative decorated with methylviologen moieties, physically cross-linked with cucurbit[8]uril macrocyclic hosts. Fast exchange kinetics within the supramolecular system are enabled by reversible cross-linking through the binding of the naphthyl and viologen guests. The colloidal hydrogel consists of nanofibrillated cellulose that combines a mechanically strong nanofiber skeleton with a lateral fibrillar diameter of a few nanometers. The two networks interact through hydroxyethyl cellulose adsorption to the nanofibrillated cellulose surfaces. This work shows methods to bridge the length scales of molecular and colloidal hybrid hydrogels, resulting in synergy between reinforcement and dynamics.

Hybrid Supramolecular and Colloidal Hydrogels that Bridge Multiple Length Scales.

Hybrid nanocomposites were constructed based on colloidal nanofibrillar hydrogels with interpenetrating supramolecular hydrogels, displaying enhanced rheological yield strain and a synergistic improvement in storage modulus. The supramolecular hydrogel consists of naphthyl‐functionalized hydroxyethyl cellulose and a cationic polystyrene derivative decorated with methylviologen moieties, physically cross‐linked with cucurbit[8]uril macrocyclic hosts. Fast exchange kinetics within the supramolecular system are enabled by reversible cross‐linking through the binding of the naphthyl and viologen guests. The colloidal hydrogel consists of nanofibrillated cellulose that combines a mechanically strong nanofiber skeleton with a lateral fibrillar diameter of a few nanometers. The two networks interact through hydroxyethyl cellulose adsorption to the nanofibrillated cellulose surfaces. This work shows methods to bridge the length scales of molecular and colloidal hybrid hydrogels, resulting in synergy between reinforcement and dynamics.

Strontium-doped samarium manganite as cathode materials for oxygen reduction reaction in solid oxide fuel cells

SmxSr1−xMnO3 with x = 0.3, 0.5 and 0.8, denoted as SSM37, SSM55 and SSM82, respectively, have been prepared via a sol–gel route as materials for cathodes in solid oxide fuel cells. Their activities in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) have been evaluated in comparison with the state-of-the-art cathode material La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 (LSM82) by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and thermogravimetry (TG). Among all the prepared cathodes, the SSM55 exhibits the lowest values, while the LSM82 exhibits the highest polarization resistance, at open circuit voltage (OCV) and temperatures from 650 to 800 °C. This result indicates that the prepared SmxSr1−xMnO3 is a promising replacement for LSM82 as cathode material for SOFCs, and the SSM55 represents the optimal concentration in SmxSr1−xMnO3 series. The remarkably high ORR activity of the SSM55 is ascribed to its high surface Mn4+/Mn3+ and Oad/Olattice ratios and fast surface oxygen exchange kinetics.

A time-resolved study on the interaction of oppositely charged bicelles--implications on the charged lipid exchange kinetics.

Time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering was applied to study charged lipid exchange between oppositely charged disc-shaped bicelles. The exchange of charged lipids gradually reduces the surface charge density and weakens the electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged bicelles which form alternately stacked aggregates upon mixing. Initially, at a high surface charge density with almost no free water layer between the stacked bicelles, fast exchange kinetics dominate the exchange process. At a later stage with a lower surface charge density and a larger water gap between the stacked bicelles, slow exchange kinetics take over. The fast exchange kinetics are correlated with the close contact of the bicelles when there is almost no free water layer between the tightly bound bicelles with a charged lipid exchange time constant as short as 20-40 min. When the water gap becomes large enough to have a free water layer between the stacked bicelles, the fast lipid exchange kinetics are taken over by slow lipid exchange kinetics with time constants around 200-300 min, which are comparable to the typical time constant of lipid exchange between vesicles in aqueous solution. These two kinds of exchange mode fit well with the lipid exchange models of transient hemifusion for the fast mode and monomer exchange for the slow mode.

Fast oxygen exchange and diffusion kinetics of grain boundaries in Sr-doped LaMnO3 thin films.

In this study, the contribution of grain boundaries to the oxygen reduction and diffusion kinetics of La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 (LSM) thin films is investigated. Polycrystalline LSM thin films with columnar grains of different grain sizes as well as epitaxial thin films were prepared by pulsed laser deposition. (18)O tracer exchange experiments were performed at temperatures from 570 °C to 810 °C and subsequently analyzed by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). The isotope concentration depth profiles of polycrystalline films clearly indicate contributions from diffusion and surface exchange in grains as well as in grain boundaries. Measured depth profiles were analyzed by finite element modeling and revealed the diffusion coefficients D and oxygen exchange coefficients k of both the grain bulk and grain boundaries. Values obtained for grain boundaries (Dgb and kgb) are almost three orders of magnitude higher than those of the grains (Dg and kg). Hence, grain boundaries may not only facilitate fast oxygen diffusion but also fast oxygen exchange kinetics. Variation of the A-site stoichiometry ((La0.8Sr0.2)0.95MnO3) did not lead to large changes of the kinetic parameters. Properties found for epitaxial layers without grain boundaries (Db and kb) are close to those of the grains in polycrystalline layers.

Solid Phase Extraction, Preconcentration and Sequential Separation of U(VI), Th(IV), La(III) and Ce(III) by Octa-<i>O</i>-methoxy resorcin[4]arene based Amberlite XAD-4 Chelating Resin

Amberlite XAD-4 was covalently linked with octa-O-methoxy resorcin[4]arene through - N=N- to form chelating resin, which has been duly characterized and successfully used for separation and preconcentration of rare-earth metal ions like U(VI), Th(IV), La(III) and Ce(III). Various physiochemical parameters like pH, flow rate, sorption capacity, breakthrough studies, distribution coefficient, preconcentration factor, concentration of eluting agents responsible for quantitative extraction of metal ions were optimized. The resin possessed good binding affinity towards U(VI), Th(IV), La(III) and Ce(III) under selective pH conditions and were quantitatively eluted with suitable eluants like HCl and HNO3. Amount of metal ions was determined by spectrophotometry or inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. Fast exchange kinetics and good breakthrough capacity of the resin lead to effective separation of metal ions from their binary and ternary mixture by column method on the basis of pH and eluting agents. The resin could be reused for 8-10 cycles with recoveries of analytes higher than 98%. Proposed method having analytical data with the relative standard deviation (RSD) < 2%, reflect upon the reproducibility and reliability of the method which has been effectively used for separation and determination of U(VI), Th(IV), La(III) and Ce(III) ions from monazite sand and standard reference materials.

Oxygen tracer diffusion and surface exchange kinetics in Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3 − δ

The oxygen tracer diffusion coefficient, Db⁎, and the oxygen tracer surface exchange coefficient, k, were measured in Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3−δ (BSCF5582) over the temperature range of 310–800°C and the oxygen partial pressure range of 1.3×10−3–0.21bar. Several measurement techniques were used: isotope exchange followed by depth profiling (IEDP) within individual single grains or line scanning (IELS) along the sample cross-section and gas-phase analysis (GPA). Surface exchange kinetics was initially found to be slow and presumably inhibited by the formation of a passivating layer on the sample surface. High temperature pre-anneals (900–950°C) changed the nature of this layer and enhanced surface exchange. Fast bulk oxygen diffusion and surface exchange kinetics were observed after high temperature pre-anneals within the temperature range studied. The activation energies for 18O tracer diffusion and surface exchange at 0.21bar were 0.72±0.05 and 1.10±0.15eV, respectively. The tracer diffusion coefficient showed weak dependence upon oxygen partial pressure, whereas the surface exchange coefficient exhibited strong oxygen partial pressure dependence. The microstructure of the samples (the porosity and grain size) had a profound effect on the measured tracer diffusion coefficient.

Defect chemistry and surface oxygen exchange kinetics of La-doped Sr(Ti,Fe)O3 − α in oxygen-rich atmospheres

The mixed ionic and electronic conductor Sr(Ti,Fe)O3-α (STF) exhibits fast oxygen surface exchange kinetics, with electron concentration potentially playing a key role. The effect of La donor doping on electron concentration, Fermi level, and overall defect chemistry of STF is investigated on Sr1-yLayTi0.65Fe0.35O3-α (LSTF, 0≤y≤0.5) thin films. Defect chemical modeling, optical absorption, and electrical conductivity measurements in oxidizing conditions indicate compensation of donors by an increase in oxygen and electron concentrations, increase in Fermi level, decrease in oxygen vacancy and hole concentrations, and formation of cation vacancies (for [La]>[Fe]). The surface exchange coefficient, measured by impedance spectroscopy, decreased with increasing donor concentration, suggesting that oxygen exchange kinetics in LSTF are limited by low oxygen vacancy and/or hole concentrations, rather than electron transfer.

Invited Presentation: Effect of Elastic Strain and Dislocations on Oxide Ion Diffusion and Oxygen Exchange Kinetics on Oxides

How can the oxygen non-stoichiometry, oxygen diffusion and oxygen reduction kinetics be altered in functional oxides by lattice strain? This question has recently attracted wide interest for enabling a new route for attaining fast oxygen exchange and transport kinetics, and obtaining fundamental answers to this question is important for a range of technologies including high performance solid oxide fuel cells, oxide based sensors, separation membranes and memristors. By applying mechanical stress, the inherent energy landscape of the reactions involved on the material can be altered. For example, in theory one can turn an endothermic reaction into an exothermic one, and reduce the energy barriers by applying lattice strain. This is the so-called mechano-chemical coupling, and when applied on electrochemical systems we can introduce the term mechano-electro-chemistry.In this talk, we will discuss recent work that probes quantitatively the mechanisms by which elastic strain impacts surface reactivity and diffusion kinetics in fluorite and perovskite oxides. Computationally, using ab initio and atomistic simulations, we discovered that lattice strain can accelerate the ionic transport in 8%Y2O3-ZrO2 by reducing the ion migration energy barriers. Combining surface chemical characterization on model thin films with ab initio modeling, we demonstrated for the first time that tensile lattice strain favors oxygen exchange kinetics on both the oxygen-deficient (La,Sr)CoO3-d and (La,Sr)MnO3-d and the oxygen-excess Nd2NiO4+d by impacting the energies of oxygen adsorption and dissociation, oxygen vacancy formation, oxygen diffusion, cation segregation and the electron transfer process. The favorable impact of tensile lattice strain on these elementary reactions was validated at the collective level by quantifying the oxygen surface exchange and diffusion kinetics with isotope exchange measurements on (La,Sr)CoO3-d. Lastly, we will discuss the impact of dislocations in ionic crystals, as doped CeO2 and ZrO2 on the distribution of charged defects and mobility of oxygen vacancies. These results together put forth both elastic strain and the dislocations to be important factors that impressively changes the kinetics of charge transport and reactivity in functional oxides.

Study of the binding interaction between fluorinated matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors and Human Serum Albumin

Fluorinated, arylsulfone-based inhibitors of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMP) have been used, in the [18F]-radiolabelled version, as radiotracers targeted to MMP-2/9 for Positron Emission Tomography (PET). Although they showed acceptable tumour uptake, specificity was rather low. To get further insights into the reason of low specificity, the binding interaction of these compounds with Human Serum Albumin (HSA) has been investigated. 19F NMR spectroscopy showed that all compounds considered partition between multiple HSA binding sites, being characterized by either slow-exchange kinetics (with Ka in the order of 105 M−1) and fast-exchange kinetics (with Ka in the order of 104 M-1). For 2-(2-(4′-(2-fluoroethoxy)biphenyl-4-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acetic acid (1a) and 2-(2-(4′-(2-fluoroacetamido)biphenyl-4-ylsulfonyl)phenyl)acetic acid (1c), these slow and fast-exchanging binding sites could be mapped to Sudlow's site I and II, respectively. It is shown that high affinity albumin binding constitutes a theoretical limitation for the specificity achievable by MMP-inhibitors as MMP-targeted PET tracers in cancer imaging, because albumin accumulating aspecifically in tumours lowers the binding potential of radiotracers.

Oxygen transport kinetics of the misfit layered oxide Ca3Co4O9+δ

Ca3Co4O9+δ exhibits fast oxygen exchange kinetics rendering it a promising electrode for application as an air electrode in solid oxide cells.

Octa-&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;O&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;-Methoxy Resorcin [4] Arene Amberlite XAD-4 Polymeric Chelating Resin for Solid Phase Extraction, Preconcentration, Separation and Trace Determination of Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) and Cd(II) Ions

Synthetic resin, Amberlite XAD-4 was linked covalently with the third generation supramolecule, octa-O-methoxy resorcin [4] arene through -N=N-group to form chelating resin, which has been characterized and effectively used for the separation and preconcentration of metal ions such as Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) and Cd(II). Critical parameters such as pH, flow rate, sorption capacity, breakthrough studies, distribution coefficient, preconcentration factor, concentration of eluting agents responsible for quantitative extraction of metal ions were optimized. The synthesized resin showed good binding affinity towards Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) and Cd(II) under selective pH conditions. Good breakthrough capacity and fast exchange kinetics of the resin lead to effective separation of metal ions from their binary and ternary mixture by column method on the basis of pH and eluting agents. The resin could be reused for about 8 -10 cycles. The proposed method having the analytical data with the relative standard deviation (RSD) 2% and with recoveries of analytes higher than 98%, reflects upon the reproducibility and reliability of the method which has been successfully applied in the separation and determination of Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) and Cd(II) ions in synthetic, natural and ground water samples.

Atomistic insights into solvation dynamics and conformational transformation in thermo-sensitive and non-thermo-sensitive oligomers

Solvation dynamics and conformational transformation in oligomers with varying degree of temperature sensitivity is studied using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Conformational transformation in three model systems namely poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM), poly(acrylamide) (PAA), and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) are compared and contrasted to understand the origin of a coil-to-globule transformations across the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) in thermo-sensitive oligomers. PNIPAM, PAA, and PEG are water-soluble oligomers. However, for the temperature range used in these simulations, PNIPAM shows an LCST whereas PAA and PEG are non-thermo-sensitive. Oligomers of PNIPAM, PAA, and PEG consisting of 30 monomer units (30-mer) each were simulated at 5 °C (278 K) and 37 °C (310 K). Conformational transformations in the oligomers are evaluated using structural and dynamical correlation functions such as radius of gyration, radial distribution function, residence time probabilities and hydrogen-bonding life-times. Our simulations suggest that the solubility, solvation dynamics, and conformation of the oligomers are dictated by two factors: (a) the local structure of proximal water and (b) the diffusion and exchange kinetics of proximal water with bulk water. In thermo-sensitive oligomer such as PNIPAM, we find that the coil-to-globule transition is closely related to the local ordering and solvation dynamics of PNIPAM. We have identified stable configurations of proximal water molecules for an oligomer undergoing conformational transition. The slow diffusional properties of proximal water molecules near PNIPAM oligomers suggests that water forms a stable network near hydrophilic groups of PNIPAM as compared to the hydrophilic groups of PAA and PEG. Thermal perturbation of this solvated structure results in significant reduction in local ordering of water, which contributes to the globular collapse and the reduced solubility of PNIPAM above its LCST. On the other hand, non-thermo-sensitive oligomers such as PAA and PEG are characterized by much faster diffusion and exchange kinetics of proximal water at the two simulated temperatures compared to PNIPAM. This faster exchange kinetics helps in maintaining higher hydration level of the oligomers and is responsible for the apparent hydrophilic character and thereby the observed solubility at the two simulated temperatures.

Structure and Kinetic Stability of the p63 Tetramerization Domain

The p53 family of transcription factors—comprising p53, p63 and p73—plays an important role in tumor prevention and development. Essential to their function is the formation of tetramers, allowing cooperative binding to their DNA response elements. We solved crystal structures of the human p63 tetramerization domain, showing that p63 forms a dimer of dimers with D2 symmetry composed of highly intertwined monomers. The primary dimers are formed via an intramolecular β-sheet and hydrophobic helix packing (H1), a hallmark of all p53 family members. Like p73, but unlike p53, p63 requires a second helix (H2) to stabilize the architecture of the tetramer. In order to investigate the impact of structural differences on tetramer stability, we measured the subunit exchange reaction of p53 family homotetramers by nanoflow electrospray mass spectrometry. There were differences in both the kinetics and the pattern of the exchange reaction, with the p53 and p63 tetramers exhibiting much faster exchange kinetics than p73. The structural similarity between p63 and p73 rationalizes previous observations that p63 and p73 form mixed tetramers, and the kinetic data reveal the dissociation of the p73 homotetramers as the rate-limiting step for heterotetramer formation. Differential stability of the tetramers may play an important role in the cross talk between different isoforms and regulation of p53, p63 and p73 function in the cell cycle.

Thermodynamic and Electrical Properties of Layered Perovskite NdBaCo2−xFexO5+δ−YSZ (x = 0, 1) Composites for Intermediate Temperature SOFC Cathodes

The thermodynamic and electrical characteristics of the NdBaCo2O5+δ (NBCO) have been studied as a competitive candidate of cathode material for intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs). NBCO has got extensive attention because it shows rapid oxygen diffusion, fast surface exchange kinetics, and high electrical conductivity, but a lack of long term stability is a concern. We investigated Fe doped NBCO based on the fact that stability of the NBCO-YSZ composite was increased by Fe doping. As expected, our results confirm that NdBaCoFeO5+δ(NBCF) is more stable than the NBCO because the partial molar enthalpies of oxidation for the NBCF are higher than those for the NBCO. The higher partial molar entropies of oxidation for the NBCF is attributed to the fact that excess oxygen can be added into the interstitial lattice more freely in the NBCF than in the NBCO. However, the electrical conductivity of the NBCF (∼1 S cm−1) is about one order of magnitude lower than that of the NBCO (∼10 S cm−1), but it is still manageable if proper current collectors are used. The maximum power density obtained for a single cell with NBCF-YSZ and NBCO-YSZ composites is 1.034 and 0.866 W cm−2 at 1023 K, respectively.

Fast oxygen exchange kinetics of pore-free Bi1−xSrxFeO3−δ thin films

The oxygen incorporation/extraction kinetics of the potential solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) cathode material Bi(1-x)Sr(x)FeO(3-δ) with x = 0.5 and 0.8 was studied by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy on geometrically well-defined pore-free thin film electrodes. The oxygen exchange rate was found to be higher than that of La(1-x)Sr(x)FeO(3-δ) and-among cobalt-free perovskites-only surpassed by Ba(1-x)Sr(x)FeO(3-δ) which is however known to be unstable in a SOFC environment.

Interfacial Properties of Emulsions Stabilized with Surfactant and Nonsurfactant Coated Boehmite Nanoparticles

The properties of emulsions stabilized with surface-modified boehmite particles of 26 and 8 nm in diameter have been investigated. The surface-modified particles were prepared by mixing aqueous dispersions of cationic boehmite particles with aqueous solutions of the surfactant p-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) or the nonsurfactant p-toluenesulfonic acid (TSA). For the 26 nm particles, interfacial tension measurements indicate that p-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid partitions between the particle surface and the oil-water interface, while p-toluenesulfonic acid remains on the particle surface. The partitioning of p-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid supports the formation of emulsions, although in the absence of the particles the same surfactant concentration is not sufficient for emulsion stabilization. Due to the fast exchange kinetics, p-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid is gradually replaced by particles. At equilibrium, the interfacial tension in the presence of the surface-modified particles is between the values for the pure particles and the pure surfactant solutions. However, the interfacial tension is independent of the surfactant concentration used in the preparation of the particles. Reducing the particle size to 8 nm leads to increased emulsion stability, and thus, the minimum particle concentration required to prepare stable emulsions was reduced to 0.1 g/L. However, above approximately 3.5 mmol/L of the sulfonic acids, the small particles dissolve slowly, and the emulsion stability is lost. This mechanism can be used to trigger the collapse of the emulsions.

Structural Analysis of the Ribosome-associated Complex (RAC) Reveals an Unusual Hsp70/Hsp40 Interaction

Yeast Zuotin and Ssz are members of the conserved Hsp40 and Hsp70 chaperone families, respectively, but compared with canonical homologs, they atypically form a stable heterodimer termed ribosome-associated complex (RAC). RAC acts as co-chaperone for another Hsp70 to assist de novo protein folding. In this study, we identified the molecular basis for the unusual Hsp70/Hsp40 pairing using amide hydrogen exchange (HX) coupled with mass spectrometry and mutational analysis. Association of Ssz with Zuotin strongly decreased the conformational dynamics mainly in the C-terminal domain of Ssz, whereas Zuotin acquired strong conformational stabilization in its N-terminal segment. Deletion of the highly flexible N terminus of Zuotin abolished stable association with Ssz in vitro and caused a phenotype resembling the loss of Ssz function in vivo. Thus, the C-terminal domain of Ssz, the N-terminal extension of Zuotin, and their mutual stabilization are the major structural determinants for RAC assembly. We furthermore found dynamic changes in the J-domain of Zuotin upon complex formation that might be crucial for RAC co-chaperone function. Taken together, we present a novel mechanism for converting Zuotin and Ssz chaperones into a functionally active dimer.

Substituted β-Cyclodextrin and Calix[4]arene As Encapsulatory Vehicles for Platinum(II)-Based DNA Intercalators

The encapsulation of three platinum(II)-based anticancer complexes, [(5,6-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline)(1 S,2 S-diaminocyclohexane)platinum(II)] (2+) ( 56MESS), [(5,6-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline)(1 R,2 R-diaminocyclohexane)platinum(II)] (2+) ( 56MERR), and [(5,6-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline)(ethylenediamine)platinum(II)] (2+) ( 56MEEN), with carboxylated-beta-cyclodextrin (c-beta-CD) and p-sulfonatocalix[4]arene (s-CX[4]) has been examined by one- and two-dimensional (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, pulsed gradient spin-echo NMR, ultraviolet spectrophotometry, glutathione degradation experiments, and growth inhibition assays. Titration of any of the three metal complexes with c-beta-CD resulted in 1:1 encapsulation complexes with the cyclodextrin located over the intercalating ligand of the metal complexes, with a binding constant of 10 (4)-10 (5) M (-1). In addition to binding over the phenanthroline ligand of 56MEEN, c-beta-CD was also found to portal bind to the ethylenediamine ligand, with fast exchange kinetics on the NMR timescale between the two binding sites. In contrast, the three metal complexes all formed 2:2 inclusion complexes with s-CX[4] where the two metal complexes stacked in a head-to-tail configuration and were capped by the s-CX[4] molecules. Interestingly, the 56MEEN-s-CX[4] complex appeared to undergo a thermodynamically controlled rearrangement to a less soluble complex over time. Encapsulation of the metal complexes in either c-beta-CD or s-CX[4] significantly decreased the metal complexes' rate of diffusion, consistent with the formation of larger particle volumes. Encapsulation of 56MESS within s-CX[4] or c-beta-CD protected the metal complex from degradation by reduced L-glutathione, with a reaction half-life greater than 9 days. In vitro growth inhibition assays using the LoVo human colorectal cancer cell line showed no significant change in the cytotoxicity of 56MESS when encapsulated by either s-CX[4] or c-beta-CD.