Distribution Of Fast Electrons Research Articles

A Hard X-Ray Pinhole Camera System for Fast Electron Bremsstrahlung Measurements in the HL-2A Tokamak

A hard X-ray pinhole camera system has been recently built at the HL-2A tokamak to measure the evolution of space-time distribution of fast electrons in the energy range of 20 to 200 keV. The camera is mainly composed of a fan-shaped detector array, an observation window, a pinhole mechanism, and a data processing system. The detector array consists of 21 CdTe detectors that are arranged in a poloidal section. The camera views the plasma perpendicularly through an observation window mounted in a horizontal port on the equatorial plane. The data processing is implemented by a fast spectrometry based on field-programmable gate array technology. The time and space resolution of the camera can reach 2 to 16 ms and 2 cm, respectively. During the HL-2A experiment campaign in 2018, measurements of fast electrons produced by lower hybrid waves using the camera were successfully performed. The performance of the camera and the first experimental results with some discussions are presented in this paper.

Fast Electron Generation in a Pulsed Discharge Plasma in Helium at a Pressure of 0.02–2.0 Torr

The results of experimental studies of the fast electron distribution function under the conditions of a nonequilibrium plasma of a pulsed discharge in helium are presented. It is established using various methods that a beam of fast electrons, the energy of which depends on the voltage applied to the discharge gap and gas pressure, is generated at a helium pressure of 0.02–2.0 Torr in the initial stage of the discharge, when the reduced electric field strength exceeds the critical value.

Experimental study of fast electron generation from intense laser irradiated mylar foil with thin metal coating on front or rear surfaces

We report angular and spectral distribution of fast electrons in the interaction of a high intensity laser pulse (30 fs, I∼1019 W/cm2) with uncoated transparent mylar foil (thickness: 8 μm). The effect of thin Al coating (50 nm) on either the front or rear surface of the mylar foil on fast electron generation was also investigated. An electron flux enhancement of ∼1.8× (from ∼45 pC to ∼80 pC) and an increase in the maximum electron energy from ∼ 400 keV to ∼ 800 keV were observed in the case of front coated foil compared to the uncoated one. In the case of rear coated foil, an enhancement of ∼1.4× in the electron flux with no change in maximum electron energy was observed compared to the uncoated foil. The observations are understood in terms of possible different preplasma conditions for various target configurations used, which is also supported by 1D hydrodynamic simulation carried out for the present experimental conditions. The observed enhancement in electron flux and temperature is also supported by 2D Particle in Cell (PIC) simulation.

Time-resolved measurements of fast electron recirculation for relativistically intense femtosecond scale laser-plasma interactions

A key issue in realising the development of a number of applications of high-intensity lasers is the dynamics of the fast electrons produced and how to diagnose them. We report on measurements of fast electron transport in aluminium targets in the ultra-intense, short-pulse (<50 fs) regime using a high resolution temporally and spatially resolved optical probe. The measurements show a rapidly (≈0.5c) expanding region of Ohmic heating at the rear of the target, driven by lateral transport of the fast electron population inside the target. Simulations demonstrate that a broad angular distribution of fast electrons on the order of 60° is required, in conjunction with extensive recirculation of the electron population, in order to drive such lateral transport. These results provide fundamental new insight into fast electron dynamics driven by ultra-short laser pulses, which is an important regime for the development of laser-based radiation and particle sources.

A flexible, on-line magnetic spectrometer for ultra-intense laser produced fast electron measurement

We have developed an on-line magnetic spectrometer to measure energy distributions of fast electrons generated from ultra-intense laser-solid interactions. The spectrometer consists of a sheet of plastic scintillator, a bundle of non-scintillating plastic fibers, and an sCMOS camera recording system. The design advantages include on-line capturing ability, versatility of detection arrangement, and resistance to harsh in-chamber environment. The validity of the instrument was tested experimentally. This spectrometer can be applied to the characterization of fast electron source for understanding fundamental laser-plasma interaction physics and to the optimization of high-repetition-rate laser-driven applications.

Influence of Whistler Turbulence on Fast Electron Distribution and Their Microwave Emissions in a Flare Loop

The influence of whistlers on the distribution and gyrosynchrotron radiation of fast electrons injected into a coronal magnetic trap is considered. The kinetic equation in the Fokker–Planck approximation with consideration of fast electron scattering, both on background plasma particles and on whistlers, is solved for an inhomogeneous trap. It is supposed that the source of whistlers is a nonstationary process of flare energy release. Having found the fast electron distribution, we can calculate their gyrosynchrotron microwave emission. The influence of nonthermal electron scattering on whistlers are compared with the effects of scattering on Coulomb collisions. It is shown that whistlers considerably modify the emission characteristics of a loop at a certain energy density; in particular, they steepen the frequency spectrum. This is useful for microwave diagnostics of plasma turbulence in the flare loop.

Electron–ion collisions in strong electromagnetic fields

The current status of the problem of electron–ion collisions in strong electromagnetic fields is presented. The collision operator is expressed in terms of an integral over test particle trajectories for an arbitrary alternating field. The equation for test particles is analyzed. It is shown that none of the energy processes involved (Joule heating, bremsstrahlung and fast electron generation) diminishes as the electromagnetic field amplitude increases. The collision frequency, the momentum distribution of fast electrons, and the electron–ion collision operator are calculated in the classical framework.

Effect of electron temperature on the distribution of plasma parameters on the phase planes for thermionic diode with low temperature emitter

Influence of temperature distribution of thermal and fast electrons on the distribution of the ion current density in the electrode gap diode has been studied. Studies on the phase planes, especially in the plane of the plasma density – ion current density have been carried out. It is shown that the generation of ions in the electrode gap is specified by the fast electron temperature.

Energy distribution of fast electrons accelerated by high intensity laser pulse depending on laser pulse duration

The dependence of high-energy electron generation on the pulse duration of a high intensity LFEX laser was experimentally investigated. The LFEX laser (λ = 1.054 and intensity = 2.5 – 3 x 1018 W/cm2) pulses were focused on a 1 mm3 gold cubic block after reducing the intensities of the foot pulse and pedestal by using a plasma mirror. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) duration of the intense laser pulse could be set to either 1.2 ps or 4 ps by temporally stacking four beams of the LFEX laser, for which the slope temperature of the high-energy electron distribution was 0.7 MeV and 1.4 MeV, respectively. The slope temperature increment cannot be explained without considering pulse duration effects on fast electron generation.

Estimation of the current driven by residual loop voltage in LHCD plasma on EAST Tokamak

The lower hybrid wave current drive (LHCD) is one of the efficient methods of driving the non-inductive current required for Tokamak operating in steady-state. Residual loop voltage exists in Tokamak when the non-inductive current is not fully driven. Residual loop voltage also accelerates the fast electrons generated by the lower hybrid wave (LHW), which can drive extra current and combine with the current driven by the LHW. It is generally difficult to separate these two different components of driven current in the experiment. In this paper, the currents driven by LHCD and residual loop voltage are separated directly by solving the Fokker–Plank equation numerically. The fraction of the current driven by residual loop voltage compared to the current driven by LHW is evaluated on the experimental advanced superconducting tokamak (EAST). The current driven by residual loop voltage is several percent of the currents driven by the LHCD when the residual loop voltage is small, but it increases with the residual loop voltage up to 25% when the residual loop voltage is about 2 V. The hot electrical conductivity is deduced from the net current driven by the residual loop voltage. Its distribution profile is related to the fast electron distribution driven by LHW.

Evolution of the angular distribution of laser-generated fast electrons due to resistive self-collimation

The evolution of the angular distribution of laser-generated fast electrons propagating in dense plasmas is studied by 3D numerical simulations. As resistively generated magnetic fields can strongly influence and even pinch the fast electron beam, the question of the effect on the angular distribution is of considerable interest. It was conjectured that in the limit of strong collimation, there will only be minimal changes to the angular distribution, whereas the largest reduction in the angular distribution will occur where there is only modest pinching of the fast electron beam and the beam is able to expand considerably. The results of the numerical simulations indicate this conjecture.

A thermodynamical analysis of rf current drive with fast electrons

The problem of rf current drive (CD) by pushing fast electrons with high-parallel-phase-velocity waves, such as lower-hybrid (LH) or electron-cyclotron (EC) waves, is revisited using the first and second laws, the former to retrieve the well-known one-dimensional (1D) steady-state CD efficiency, and the latter to calculate a lower bound for the rate of entropy production when approaching steady state. The laws of thermodynamics are written in a form that explicitly takes care of frictional dissipation and are thus applied to a population of fast electrons evolving under the influence of a dc electric field, rf waves, and collisions while in contact with a thermal, Maxwellian reservoir with a well-defined temperature. Besides the laws of macroscopic thermodynamics, there is recourse to basic elements of kinetic theory only, being assumed a residual dc electric field and a strong rf drive, capable of sustaining in the resonant region, where waves interact with electrons, a raised fast-electron tail distribution, which becomes an essentially flat plateau in the case of the 1D theory for LHCD. Within the 1D model, particularly suited for LHCD as it solely retains fast-electron dynamics in velocity space parallel to the ambient magnetic field, an H theorem for rf CD is also derived, which is written in different forms, and additional physics is recovered, such as the synergy between the dc and rf power sources, including the rf-induced hot conductivity, as well as the equation for electron-bulk heating. As much as possible 1D results are extended to 2D, to account for ECCD by also considering fast-electron velocity-space dynamics in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field, which leads to a detailed discussion on how the definition of an rf-induced conductivity may depend on whether one works at constant rf current or power. Moreover, working out the collisional dissipated power and entropy-production rate written in terms of the fast-electron distribution, it is shown that the well-known formula for the steady-state CD efficiency, usually obtained from the first law in the form of power balance between the external sources and collisional losses, emerges as a lower bound for that CD figure of merit, in what can be interpreted as an instance of the second law.

An ion species model for positive ion sources: II. Analysis of hydrogen isotope effects

A one-dimensional model of the magnetic multipole volume plasma source has been developed for application to intense ion/neutral atom beam injectors. The model uses plasma transport coefficients for particle and energy flow to create a detailed description of the plasma parameters along an axis parallel to that of the extracted beam. In this paper the isotopic modelling of positive hydrogenic ions is considered and compared with experimental data from the neutral beam injectors of the Joint European Torus. The use of the code to gain insights into the processes contributing to the ratios of the ionic species is demonstrated and the conclusion is drawn that 75% of the atomic ion species arises from ionization of dissociated molecules and 25% from dissociation of the molecular ions. However, whilst the former process is independent of the filter field, the latter is sensitive to the change in distribution of fast and thermal electrons produced by the magnetic filter field and an optimum combination of field strength and depth exists. Finally, the code is used to predict the species ratios for the JET source operating in tritium and hence the neutral beam power injected into the plasma in the JET tritium campaign planned for 2016.

Accuracy evaluation of a Compton X-ray spectrometer with bremsstrahlung X-rays generated by a 6 MeV electron bunch.

A Compton-scattering-based X-ray spectrometer is developed to obtain the energy distribution of fast electrons produced by intense laser and matter interactions. Bremsstrahlung X-rays generated by fast electrons in a material are used to measure fast electrons' energy distribution in matter. In the Compton X-ray spectrometer, X-rays are converted into recoil electrons by Compton scattering in a converter made from fused silica glass, and a magnet-based electron energy analyzer is used to measure the energy distribution of the electrons that recoil in the direction of the incident X-rays. The spectrum of the incident X-rays is reconstructed from the energy distribution of the recoil electrons. The accuracy of this spectrometer is evaluated using a quasi-monoenergetic 6 MeV electron bunch that emanates from a linear accelerator. An electron bunch is injected into a 1.5 mm thick tungsten plate to produce bremsstrahlung X-rays. The spectrum of these bremsstrahlung X-rays is obtained in the range from 1 to 9 MeV. The energy of the electrons in the bunch is estimated using a Monte Carlo simulation of particle-matter interactions. The result shows that the spectrometer's energy accuracy is ±0.5 MeV for 6.0 MeV electrons.

Influence of laser-drive parameters on annular fast electron transport in silicon

Three-dimensional hybrid particle-in-cell simulations are used to investigate the sensitivity of annular fast electron transport patterns in silicon to the properties of the drive laser pulse. It is found that the annular transport, which is induced by self-generated resistive magnetic fields, is particularly sensitive to the peak laser pulse intensity. The radius of the annular fast electron distribution can be varied by changing the drive laser pulse properties, and in particular the focal spot size. An ability to optically ‘tune’ the properties of an annular fast electron transport pattern could have important implications for the development of advanced ignition schemes and for tailoring the properties of beams of laser-accelerated ions.

Three-dimensional PIC/MCC simulation of electron deposition in JAEA 10 A ion sources

A systematic research on the electron deposition process in the JAEA 10 A ion source is carried out by using a particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo collision simulation, which is based on a full three-dimensional self-developed code. Two parts are studied. One is the space and energy distribution of fast and slow electrons, the other is the vibration excitation collisions between electrons and hydrogen moleculars. The results show that the inhomogeneity of electrons comes from the Y direction drift of the fast electrons (Te ≥ 25 eV) due to the action of the magnetic fields. This drift also increases the number of vibration excitation collisions in the —Y direction, and results in the increase of Ha in the —Y direction, eventually leading to the —Y drift of H−. It explains the spatial non-uniformity in the JAEA 10 A ion source.

MeV surface fast electron emission from femtosecond laser pulses interacting with planar and nanowire targets

The mechanics of generating MeV target surface fast electrons (SFEs) is investigated using a 5 J, 50 fs laser pulse focused on a Cu planar and nanowire target. The energy spectrum and spatial angular distribution of fast electrons emitted from the planar target are determined and compared with those from the nanowire target. When the laser intensity reaches 1 × 1019 W cm−2, the coupling from the laser to 1–3 MeV electrons reaches 1.1% on the planar target at a 45° incidence angle, while the number of SFEs generated from the nanowire target is about 10% of those from the planar target. The two-dimensional particle-in-cell simulation results reproduce the electron emission characteristics and reveal a strong continuous surface magnetic field on the surface of the planar target as compared with the discrete magnetic field on the nanowire target which decreases SFEs. A high, hot electron temperature in the forward direction at 556keV is achieved for the nanowire structure capable of guiding and confining fast electrons along the wire direction, compared with 178keV for the planar target.

The effect of initial conditions on the electromagnetic radiation generation in type III solar radio bursts

Extensive particle-in-cell simulations of fast electron beams injected in a background magnetised plasma with a decreasing density profile were carried out. These simulations were intended to further shed light on a newly proposed mechanism for the generation of electromagnetic waves in type III solar radio bursts [D. Tsiklauri, Phys. Plasmas, 18, 052903 (2011)]. The numerical simulations were carried out using different density profiles and fast electron distribution functions. It is shown that electromagnetic L and R modes are excited by the transverse current, initially imposed on the system. In the course of the simulations no further interaction of the electron beam with the background plasma could be observed.

Electron energy distributions through superdense matter by Monte-Carlo simulations

We have studied energy distribution of fast electrons passing through a highly compressed core plasma for fast ignition research in inertial confinement fusion. Recent PIC calculations indicate that the collective effect of electric and magnetic fields on the transport may be less significant than the binary collisions in the case of a high density fusion pellet. In order to understand the net effect of binary collisions in dense plasma, we calculate electron energy distributions at several viewing angles using an electromagnetic cascade Monte-Carlo simulation, EGS5, for estimation of the contribution of multi collisional process. Here, the construction of physical parameters in the code were taken from the calculation results given by 2 dimensional particle-in-cell simulations. In the result, the number of electrons detected on the laser axis within the range to 15 MeV significantly decreases for the superdense region (max: 1.6 · 10 25 (/cm 3 )) compared with the low density plasma. The reduction on the electron number decreases with increase of observation angles gradually and finally the number almost coincides more than 40 degrees.

Investigation of lower hybrid physics through power modulation experiments on Alcator C-Mod

Lower hybrid current drive (LHCD) is an attractive tool for off-axis current profile control in magnetically confined tokamak plasmas and burning plasmas (ITER), because of its high current drive efficiency. The LHCD system on Alcator C-Mod operates at 4.6 GHz, with ~ 1 MW of coupled power, and can produce a wide range of launched parallel refractive index (n||) spectra. A 32 chord, perpendicularly viewing hard x-ray camera has been used to measure the spatial and energy distribution of fast electrons generated by lower hybrid (LH) waves. Square-wave modulation of LH power on a time scale much faster than the current relaxation time does not significantly alter the poloidal magnetic field inside the plasma and thus allows for realistic modeling and consistent plasma conditions for different n|| spectra. Inverted hard x-ray profiles show clear changes in LH-driven fast electron location with differing n||. Boxcar binning of hard x-rays during LH power modulation allows for ~ 1 ms time resolution which is sufficient to resolve the build-up, steady-state, and slowing-down phases of fast electrons. Ray-tracing/Fokker-Planck modeling in combination with a synthetic hard x-ray diagnostic shows quantitative agreement with the x-ray data for high n|| cases. The time histories of hollow x-ray profiles have been used to measure off-axis fast electron transport in the outer half of the plasma, which is found to be small on a slowing down time scale.