Fast Bowling Research Articles

Trunk Side Strain Has a High Incidence in First-Class Cricket Fast Bowlers in Australia and England.

To investigate the past incidence of side strain injury and its associated factors in first-class cricket fast bowlers in Australia and England. Retrospective case series. Professional cricket. Cricket fast bowlers who were professionally contracted full time at first-class level in Australia and England in 2011. All bowlers were male and aged 18 or older. A bowler was defined as a fast bowler if the wicketkeeper would take their stance back from the stumps. There were 207 participants. Not applicable. The association between bowling arm, player height, active trunk lateral flexion range of motion, side bridge endurance, volume of first-class cricket played, and the history of injury was determined. Over half of the bowlers had sustained at least 1 side strain in their career. Seventy-seven percent of primary injuries occurred in bowlers aged 24 or under. A higher proportion of injured bowlers had reached first-class volume in their career. Recurrence occurred in 30% of bowlers, with over 30% of these bowlers sustaining at least 1 further recurrence. Nearly half of all recurrences occurred within 2 years with a further quarter in the next year. The injury was not associated with any measured factors. Side strain is a common injury among first-class cricket fast bowlers, especially at younger ages. It was associated with the volume of first-class cricket played. Recurrence was common and occurred most frequently in the first 2 years after primary injury.

"Violence" In Sport and the Violenti non Fit Iniuria Defence: A Perspective on the Death of the Cricket Player Phil Hughes

The article evaluates the defence of violenti non fit inuiria in sport with specific reference to the principle of bones mores or the good morals in society to tolerate injuries in sport. The increase occurrences of serious injuries in sport in the professional era, where sportsmen earn their livelihood from sport, necessitate a revisit of the existing situation. The death of the Australian cricket player, Phil Hughes, as a result of fast short-pitched bowling in cricket, has again put the spotlight on aggressive and excessive use of "violence" in sport. The malicious intent in sport, to harm and even kill an opponent, has warranted and necessitated the question as to whether there should be any difference in the manner in which the perpetrator of violence in sport should be treated compared to ordinary criminal law assault and murder offenders. In the article a two-pronged approach is suggested as a possible solution to deal with wrongfulness in cricket.
 

Are shoulder counter rotation and hip shoulder separation angle representative metrics of three-dimensional spinal kinematics in cricket fast bowling?

ABSTRACTThis study aimed to investigate the relationship between shoulder counter-rotation (SCR), hip shoulder separation (HSS) and three-dimensional spinal kinematics during fast bowling in cricket. Thirty five elite male fast bowlers were analysed using three-dimensional inertial sensors on the spine. Lumbar, thoracic and thoracolumbar kinematics were determined during the delivery stride. Spearman’s pairwise correlations displayed significant associations between SCR, thoracic and thoracolumbar lateral flexion between the back foot impact and max contralateral rotation phase of the delivery stride (rs = −.462 and −.460). HSS and thoracolumbar lateral flexion displayed a significant correlation between back foot impact and max contralateral rotation (rs = −.552). No other significant correlations were observed. These results suggest SCR and HSS are modestly related to lateral flexion, leaving a large component of SCR and HSS unrelated to specific three-dimensional spinal kinematics. It is possible that this represents changes in whole spinal orientation and not resultant spinal motion. Despite this, SCR remains the only metric currently related to injury and therefore is important; however it is only a very modest proxy for more traditional descriptions of spinal motion.

Real-time prediction of internal load during cricket fast bowling

Background: Traditionally, workload monitoring in fast bowling has involved counting the amount of deliveries bowled and obtaining the sessional rating of perceived exertion (RPE). However, the latter fails to provide real-time information on how well a fast bowler is responding to the external load. Delivery RPE has been trialed to counter this limitation. However, delivery RPE requires frequent reporting from a fast bowler after each ball; rendering this variable impractical to collect during training and competition. Therefore the purpose of this investigation was to explore an automated method of predicting delivery RPE, and compare this to the actual delivery RPE reported by fast bowlers during an assessment.

The relationship between cricket fast bowling workload and lumbar stress fracture

Background: Cricket fast bowlers are highly susceptible to lumbar stress fractures. These injuries typically affect younger players (less than 22 years old) and require prolonged recovery times. Aside from younger age, other known risk factors include excessive trunk rotation during the delivery and bowling workload. It has been demonstrated that a safe zone for bowling load exists with deviations above or below this zone associated with an increased injury risk. More recently rapid increases in workload (causing spikes relative to what the player is used to), measured using the acute:chronic workload ratio (ACWR) have also been associated with injury in fast bowlers. However to date, the ACWR has not been investigated with respect to a possible relationship with stress fractures.

Bone Density and Cross-sectional Geometry of the Proximal Femur Are Bilaterally Elevated in Elite Cricket Fast Bowlers

The skeleton of a cricket fast bowler is exposed to a unique combination of gravitational and torsional loading in the form of substantial ground reaction forces delivered through the front landing foot, and anterior-posterior shear forces mediated by regional muscle contractions across the lumbo-pelvic region. The objectives of this study were to compare the hip structural characteristics of elite fast bowlers with recreationally active age-matched controls, and to examine unilateral bone properties in fast bowlers. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry of the proximal femur was performed in 26 elite male fast bowlers and 26 normally active controls. Hip structural analysis (GE Lunar; enCORE version 15.0) determined areal bone mineral density (BMD) of the proximal femur, and cross-sectional area, section modulus (Z), cross-sectional moment of inertia, and femoral strength index at the narrow region of the femoral neck. Mean femoral neck and trochanter BMD were greater in fast bowlers than in controls (p < 0.001). All bone geometry properties, except for cross-sectional moment of inertia, were superior in fast bowlers (p < 0.05) following adjustment for height and lean mass. There were no asymmetries in BMD or bone geometry when considering leg dominance of the fast bowlers (p > 0.05). Elite fast bowlers have superior bone characteristics of the proximal femur, with results inferring enhanced resistance to axial compression (cross-sectional area), and bending (Z) forces, and enhanced strength to withstand a fall impact as indicated by their higher femoral strength index. No asymmetries in hip bone properties were identified, suggesting that both torsional and gravitational loading offer significant osteogenic potential.

Lumbar- and Cervicothoracic-Spine Loading During a Fast-Bowling Spell.

Epidemiological studies highlight a prevalence of lumbar vertebrae injuries in cricket fast bowlers, with governing bodies implementing rules to reduce exposure. Analysis typically requires complex and laboratory-based biomechanical analyses, lacking ecological validity. Developments in GPS microtechnologies facilitate on-field measures of mechanical intensity, facilitating screening toward prevention and rehabilitation. To examine the efficacy of using GPS-mounted triaxial accelerometers to quantify accumulated body load and to investigate the effect of GPS-unit placement in relation to epidemiological observations. Repeated measures, field-based. Regulation cricket pitch. 10 male injury-free participants recruited from a cricket academy (18.1 ± 0.6 y). Each participant was fitted with 2 GPS units placed at the cervicothoracic and lumbar spines to measure triaxial acceleration (100 Hz). Participants were instructed to deliver a 7-over spell of fast bowling, as dictated by governing-body guidelines. Triaxial total accumulated body and the relative uniaxial contributions were calculated for each over. There was no significant main effect for overs bowled, in either total load or the triaxial contributions to total load. This finding suggests no cumulative fatigue effect across the 10-over spell. However, there was a significant main effect for GPS-unit location, with the lumbar unit exposed to significantly greater load than the cervicothoracic unit in each of the triaxial planes. There was no evidence to suggest that accumulated load significantly increased as a result of spell duration. In this respect the governing-body guidelines for this age group can be considered safe, or potentially even conservative. However, the observation of higher body load at the lumbar spine than at the cervicothoracic spine supports epidemiological observations of injury incidence. GPS microtechnologies might therefore be considered in screening and monitoring of players toward injury prevention and/or during rehabilitation.

Identifying fast bowlers likely to play test cricket based on age-group performances

A challenge for New Zealand cricket is identifying and retaining fast bowling talent. A methodology is described for determining individuals with a greater propensity to play test cricket for New Zealand, based solely on youth performances. Analyses were conducted on data from New Zealand youth test matches contested between 1986 and 2008, with subsequent selection for the test team as the dependent variable. Given the presence of collinearity and complex interactions amongst the variables, a regression tree technique was utilised, which ensured a pragmatic solution. After pruning, the regression tree indicated that average strike rate and average balls bowled per innings were key determining factors of future selection. Youth bowlers that had high workload (high average balls bowled) and high efficacy (low strike rate) accounted for 11/14 of those that went on to play test cricket for New Zealand. Interestingly, a further 2 of those 14 represented New Zealand in winter sports. Importantly, these results align with previous insights derived in literature. Extending this framework further enables the probability of playing test cricket for each individual to be determined by fitting a regression model to the regression tree residuals. This serves as a useful ranking system.

Consistency of kinematic and kinetic patterns during a prolonged spell of cricket fast bowling: an exploratory laboratory study

ABSTRACTDue to the high incidence of lumbar spine injury in fast bowlers, international cricket organisations advocate limits on workload for bowlers under 19 years of age in training/matches. The purpose of this study was to determine whether significant changes in either fast bowling technique or movement variability could be detected throughout a 10-over bowling spell that exceeded the recommended limit. Twenty-five junior male fast bowlers bowled at competition pace while three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic data were collected for the leading leg, trunk and bowling arm. Separate analyses for the mean and within-participant standard deviation of each variable were performed using repeated measures factorial analyses of variance and computation of effect sizes. No substantial changes were observed in mean values or variability of any kinematic, kinetic or performance variables, which instead revealed a high degree of consistency in kinematic and kinetic patterns. Therefore, the suggestion that exceeding the workload limit per spell causes technique- and loading-related changes associated with lumbar injury risk is not valid and cannot be used to justify the restriction of bowling workload. For injury prevention, the focus instead should be on the long-term effect of repeated spells and on the fast bowling technique itself.

Risk factors for hamstring injuries in Australian male professional cricket players

BackgroundInjuries to the hamstring are relatively common in professional cricketers (as they are in many team sports) and have increased in incidence in the “T20 era” (introduction of 20-over matches) of cricket since 2006. MethodsThis study analyzed incidence of hamstring injury in the various elite male match types over a 20-year period (1995–1996 to 2014–2015 seasons). Risk factors for hamstring strain were assessed using a multivariate logistic regression analysis technique. ResultsThere were 276 match time-loss hamstring injuries recorded over a 20-year period at the Australian state or national player level, of which 170 occurred in one of 40,145 player match sets. The overall rate of match onset rate was 22.5 hamstring injuries per 1000 team days. Fast bowling onset injuries were the highest subcategory at a rate of 10.9 injuries per 1000 team days, although batting onset injuries were particularly common in 50-over (one day) international matches. Significant risk factors in logistic regression analysis, in addition to hamstring injury history, were being a fast bowler relative risk (RR) 2.5 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3–4.5) and playing a match in Australia RR 2.3 (95%CI: 1.3–3.9). ConclusionFast bowlers suffer more hamstring injuries than other playing roles in cricket, particularly in First Class (multi-day) cricket. Batsmen are more likely to get injured in 50-over (one day) cricket. Playing in Australia (compared to overseas venues) leads to increased risk of hamstring injury.

Entrapment of the Medial Branch of the Superior Cluneal Nerve – a Previously Unrecognized Cause of Lower Back Pain in Cricket Fast Bowlers

Cricket fast bowlers have a high incidence of injury and are prone to back problems that can become debilitating and foreshorten their careers. We present a case of superior cluneal nerve (SCN) entrapment neuropathy as a previously unrecognized etiology of lower back pain in a professional cricket fast bowler, often misdiagnosed as a lumbar spine disorder. We believe that the SCN may be susceptible to compression related to repetitive contraction of the back musculature, in particular the Thoraco-lumbar erector spinae (TLES) and Latissimus dorsi which contribute to a fibro-osseous tunnel through which the SCN runs. The problem can be readily treated with surgical decompression and patients can expect a return to near full function. Clinicians should be aware of this diagnosis when investigating athletes for chronic lower back pain.

Are Indian Cricket Fast Bowlers At Risk Of Injury? - A 3d Biomechanical Investigation

Cricket is the most commonly played and followed sport in India. Modern day Cricket demands a high level of performance from the fast bowler who obviously carries the highest risk for injury. 3D motion analysis could be used to prevent injuries by identifying incorrect techniques. Researchers have identified certain key biomechanical variables as predictors of injury in fast bowlers apart from other factors like bowling workload and on-field injuries. Very little such information is available with respect to Indian Cricket fast bowlers despite the huge popularity of the sport here. PURPOSE: To identify injury risks in Indian fast bowlers with respect to key biomechanical variables, using 3D motion analysis. METHODS: 22 male fast bowlers from state & division level Cricket teams between ages 18-30 years underwent 3D motion analysis in a Cricket Biomechanics testing facility. The bowling action was captured with a set of 3D cameras (250fps) and 2D video cameras (125fps). Key biomechanical variables including Delivery Stride Length (SL), Lateral Trunk Flexion at Ball Release (LTF at BR) and Knee Flexion at Front Foot Contact (KF at FFC) were measured. Peak Vertical Ground Reaction Forces (pVGRF) were recorded simultaneously using Force Plates. Data processing & analysis was done with proprietary software using a standard model. Descriptive statistical analysis of results was done. RESULTS: A large proportion of the study population were at risk of injuries (100% had less than optimum SL, 41% had high LTF at BR, 45% had high pVGRF and 45% had lower KF at FFC). Bowling Action Type was found ideal or acceptable in 77%. CONCLUSION: Indian Fast Bowlers, in spite of possessing ideal to acceptable bowling action types, are vulnerable to injury with respect to key biomechanical variables.Figure

Effect of Ball Weight on Speed, Accuracy, and Mechanics in Cricket Fast Bowling.

The aims of this study were: (1) to quantify the acute effects of ball weight on ball release speed, accuracy, and mechanics in cricket fast bowling; and (2) to test whether a period of sustained training with underweight and overweight balls is effective in increasing a player’s ball release speed. Ten well-trained adult male cricket players performed maximum-effort deliveries using balls ranging in weight from 46% to 137% of the standard ball weight (156 g). A radar gun, bowling target, and 2D video analysis were used to obtain measures of ball speed, accuracy, and mechanics. The participants were assigned to either an intervention group, who trained with underweight and overweight balls, or to a control group, who trained with standard-weight balls. We found that ball speed decreased at a rate of about 1.1 m/s per 100 g increase in ball weight. Accuracy and bowling mechanics were not adversely affected by changes in ball weight. There was evidence that training with underweight and overweight balls might have produced a practically meaningful increase in bowling speed (>1.5 m/s) in some players without compromising accuracy or increasing their risk of injury through inducing poor bowling mechanics. In cricket fast bowling, a wide range of ball weight might be necessary to produce an effective modified-implement training program.

Comparison of junior fast bowling technique from beginning to the end of a season

Comparison of junior fast bowling technique from beginning to the end of a season

Do Fast Bowlers Fatigue in Cricket? A Paradox Between Player Anecdotes and Quantitative Evidence.

The manifestations of fatigue during fast bowling in cricket were systematically evaluated using subjective reports by cricket experts and quantitative data published from scientific studies. Narratives by international players and team physiotherapists were sourced from the Internet using criteria for opinion-based evidence. Research articles were evaluated for high-level fast bowlers who delivered 5- to 12-over spells with at least 1 quantitative fatigue measure. Anecdotes indicate that a long-term loss of bowling speed, tiredness, mental fatigue, and soreness occur. Scientific research shows that ball-release speed, bowling accuracy, bowling action (technique), run-up speed, and leg-muscle power are generally well maintained during bowling simulations. However, bowlers displaying excessive shoulder counterrotation toward the end of a spell also show a fall in accuracy. A single notable study involving bowling on 2 successive days in the heat showed reduced ball-release speed (-4.4 km/h), run-up speed (-1.3 km/h), and accuracy. Moderate to high ratings of perceived exertion transpire with simulations and match play (6.5-7.5 Borg CR-10 scale). Changes of blood lactate, pH, glucose, and core temperature appear insufficient to impair muscle function, although several potential physiological fatigue factors have not been investigated. The limited empirical evidence for bowling-induced fatigue appears to oppose player viewpoints and indicates a paradox. However, this may not be the case since bowling simulations resemble the shorter formats of the game but not multiday (test match) cricket or the influence of an arduous season, and comments of tiredness, mental fatigue, and soreness signify phenomena different from what scientists measure as fatigue.

The effects of fast bowling fatigue and adhesive taping on shoulder joint position sense in amateur cricket players in Victoria, Australia

ABSTRACTThe impact that muscle fatigue and taping have on proprioception in an applied sporting context remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate disturbances in position sense at the shoulder joint, and asses the effectiveness of adhesive tape in preventing injury and improving performance, after a bout of cricket fast bowling. Among amateur cricket players (N = 14), shoulder position sense, maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) force and bowling accuracy was assessed before and immediately after a fatiguing exercise bout of fast bowling. Participants were tested with the shoulder taped and untapped. Shoulder extension MVC force dropped immediately and 30 min after the exercise (P < 0.05 and P < 0.05, respectively). Position sense errors increased immediately after exercise (P < 0.05), shifting in the direction of shoulder extension for all measurements. Taping had no effect on position errors before exercise, but did significantly reduce position errors after exercise at mid-range shoulder flexion angles (45° and 60°; P < 0.05 and P < 0.05, respectively). Taping had no significant effect on bowling accuracy. These findings may be explained by a body map shift towards a gravity neutral position. Added cutaneous input from the tape is proposed to contribute more to shoulder position sense when muscles are fatigued.

Does stride length play a role in cricket fast bowling performance outcomes? An observational, cross-sectional study

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of delivery stride length on the performance outcomes of ball release speed, accuracy and ball release height within a large cohort of elite male cricket fast bowlers. Data for this observational, cross-sectional study were collected from national under 19, senior state and international level players over a four-year period. No statistically significant differences were found between the three stride length groups (short, medium and long). However, a functional difference in accuracy was evident between short and long stride length groups, with the long stride length group being less accurate (effect size (ES) = 0.8; ES confidence interval (CI) = 0.2–1.4). Therefore, it can be concluded, given the results of the current study and previous injury-related research, that in no way is it advantageous for bowlers to have a stride length that exceeds the recommended 75–85% of standing height.

SEMG ACTIVITIES OF THE THREE HEADS OF THE TRICEPS BRACHII MUSCLE DURING CRICKET BOWLING

The aim of the present study was to analyze the surface electromyography (sEMG) activities generated by the three heads of the triceps brachii (TB) muscle among the different phases during fast and spin bowling. sEMG signals from the lateral, long and medial heads of the TB from 20 bowlers were measured individually during bowling. To analyze the sEMG activities, the root mean square (RMS) value in each bowling phase for every trial per bowler was calculated from the sEMG signals from the three heads of the TB. Higher sEMG activities at the three heads of the TB were found during the fifth phase followed by the sixth, seventh, third, fourth, second and first phases in both types of bowling. sEMG activities were significantly different among the three heads of the TB and among the seven bowling phases for both bowling types at an alpha level of [Formula: see text]. These findings will be of particular importance for assessing different physical therapies for the three headed TB muscle which can improve the performance in ball delivery of cricket bowlers.

Assessment of Workload and its Effects on Performance and Injury in Elite Cricket Fast Bowlers.

Cricket is distinctly positioned in the world of elite sports because three different formats now exist, each with characteristically different workload requirements. Fast bowlers have greater match-play workload requirements and are at greater injury risk than other positions. An update on the current cricket literature regarding fast bowling match-play physiology, workload, and injury is required to demonstrate the extent to which workload is related to performance and injury in elite fast bowlers since the introduction of 20-over cricket in 2005. The current review examined articles published in English with data collected from 2005 onwards pertaining to in situ cricket fast bowling physiology, match play, injury, and workload. Four databases were searched using the combinations of the following keywords: 'cricket' and 'bowl', inclusive of 'pace', 'fast', 'medium', or 'seam' bowling. Articles from 2005 onwards with male participants, high-performing or elite, and fast bowlers in the game of cricket were considered for inclusion. Only workload assessments captured in a field setting were included. A total of 751 articles were identified. Exclusions included 527 duplicates, papers pre-2005, review articles, and abstracts. A further 185 articles were excluded after review of titles and abstracts that were deemed to be outside the scope of research or population. The full texts of 39 articles were reviewed, with only 17 included in this systematic review. In five articles reviewed, fast bowlers had a greater workload than other player types. Bowling workload history was reviewed in seven articles and appeared to have a complex interaction with likelihood of injury and injury type. Fast bowling workload has a well recognised relationship with injury and performance. Although monitoring acute and chronic workloads of fast bowlers remains the most ideal method for identifying preparedness and injury likelihood in fast bowlers, complexities exist that make the systematic prescription of bowling workloads difficult. Advances in technology to monitor workloads may provide further insight into the intensity and workloads of fast bowlers. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42015032466.

Lumbar Stress Injury or Not? - Cricket Player

HISTORY: An 18 year old male cricket player (fast bowler) presented with longstanding symptoms of stiff calves and hamstrings, and pain in the gluteal and lower back regions. He had been treated conservatively for a lumbar stress injury (including a full rehabilitation program) however his symptoms persisted. On further enquiry he had previous problems with his left Achilles tendon and a right-sided tennis elbow. His back pain felt better as he warmed up but did not respond to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. No further systemic complaints were elicited. He has a family history of an uncle diagnosed with Reiter’s Syndrome. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: He had slight tenderness of the lower lumbar area to the left of the spinous process. Neurological examination was normal. The Schöber test and chest expansion were normal. The FABER test was positive on the right and left, and the sacroiliac joints were tender on palpation. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS: 1. Lumbar spondylolysis 2. Ankylosing spondylitis 3. Vertebral disc lesion TEST AND RESULTS: Blood tests - Erythrocyte sedimentation rate: Normal - C-reactive protein: Normal - Human Leukocyte Antigen B27: Positive X-rays - Lumbar: No spondylolysis or spondylolisthesis. Slight narrowing noted of the L4/L5 intervertebral disc space. No vertebral body margin osteophytes or end plate changes identified. - Pelvis: Normal MRI - Sclerosis of the lower lumbar facets, left (L4/L5 and L5/S1). Thought to be due to overuse. - Slightly narrowed L4/L5 disc space, but no herniation or prolapse. - Reactive changes of the right sacroiliac joint, but no bony edema. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: 1. Because of the clinical picture, inconclusive radiography and positive HLA B27, the athlete was treated for inflammatory arthritis. He was prescribed a course of prednisone to which he responded dramatically. 2. Following the significant improvement, a decision was made to treat for Ankylosing Spondylitis and include a stringent rehabilitation program for the other problems identified. 3. The athlete responded well, and after 20 weeks returned to full training. However this patient will need to be monitored frequently and remain on a rehabilitation program. FINAL DIAGNOSIS: Ankylosing spondylitis complicated by overuse of the lumbar facets possibly due to his sport.