Farmers In sub-Saharan Africa Research Articles

Flexible forecast presentation overcomes longstanding obstacles to using probabilistic seasonal forecasts

We describe an innovative forecast presentation that aims to overcome obstacles to using seasonal climate forecasts for decision making, trace factors that influenced how seasonal forecast conventions have evolved, and describe a workshop process for training and supporting farmers in sub-Saharan Africa to use probabilistic seasonal forecasts. Mainstreaming seasonal climate forecasts through Regional Climate Outlook Forums (RCOFs) was an important milestone in the development of climate services. Most RCOFs and National Meteorological Services (NMS) adopted a subjective process to arrive at a consensus among different sources of prediction, and express the forecast as probabilities that rainfall in the upcoming season will fall in “below-normal,” “normal” or “above-normal” historical tercile categories. The Flexible Forecast is an online presentation that rectifies the main criticisms of the tercile convention by presenting downscaled forecasts as full probability distributions in probability-of-exceedance format along with the historical climate distribution. A map view provides seasonal forecast quantities, anomalies, or probabilities of experiencing above or below a user-selected threshold in amount or percentile, at the spatial resolution of the underlying gridded data (typically 4 to 5 km). We discuss factors that contributed to the persistence of the tercile convention, and milestones that paved the way to adopting seasonal forecast methods and formats that better align with user needs. The experience of adopting the new flexible forecast presentation regionally and at a national level in Eastern Africa illustrates the challenges and how they can be overcome. We also describe a seasonal forecast training and planning workshop process that has been piloted with smallholder farmers in several African countries. Beginning with participants' collective memory of past seasonal climate variations, the process leads them incrementally to understand the forecast presented in probability-of-exceedance format, and apply it to their seasonal planning decisions.

A meta-analysis of the adoption of agricultural technology in Sub-Saharan Africa

Both global poverty and hunger have increased in recent years, endangering progress towards accomplishing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 1 and 2. The regression has been most pronounced in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Meeting the SDG targets requires achieving resilient farm productivity. Although many farm management technologies exist to improve yields, farmers in SSA largely have not adopted these approaches. A long-standing literature about technology adoption identifies multiple hypotheses as to why farmers may or may not adopt new agricultural technologies, culminating in numerous micro-econometric studies. We analyse a metadata set capturing the findings of 164 published studies specifically focusing on SSA and show that 20 out of 38, or 53%, of the determinants commonly believed to influence technology adoption lack empirical support. Eighteen determinants—primarily related to information access, wealth, group membership and social capital, and land tenure—consistently influence adoption across studies. Wealth remains a significant determinant of fertilizer adoption, despite long-running subsidies in most countries, although it is decoupled from the adoption of improved seeds and alternative crop and nutrient management technologies. We highlight the foundational determinants of adoption and offer guidance to design effective interventions that can decrease poverty and hunger towards 2030.

Significance of sweet sorghum as a multi-purpose crop for sub-Saharan Africa

There is great interest in sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) for promoting resilience in rural livelihoods in Sub- Saharan Africa (SSA). Unlike other crops, sweet sorghum is a multi-purpose crop for grain, feed, fodder, chewing, syrup and biofuel production. The objective of this paper is to analyse information on the diversity within the crop, its adaptation and plant breeding efforts in SSA. We also discuss opportunities that exist in SSA that make the crop an attractive alternative. It is clear from the review that the crop has a wide genetic base, hence significant improvements can be made on a number of preferred traits. The review further outlines four possible production models for the economic development of the sweet sorghum industry in Sub-Saharan Africa; which are (i) production for supply to urban chewing markets, (ii) syrup production, (iii) biofuel production and (iv) fodder production. Although current research focuses on production of ethanol for biofuel, other potential uses such as production for chewing, syrup and fodder cannot be overlooked for most SSA farmers. A lot has to be done on the research front before biofuel production from sweet sorghum can be profitable and technically feasible. Future plant breeding efforts can be tailor made to deliver cultivars with peculiar traits for various end-uses.

Contract farming scheme for rubber production in Western region of Ghana: why do farmers side sell?

ABSTRACT Contract farming guarantees smallholder farmers a reliable market, allow them to access inputs and technical support, and thus improve their welfare. However, side selling is a major threat to the promotion and development of contract farming in Sub-Saharan Africa, including in Ghana. While there is growing interest in addressing this issue for food crops and other tree crops, particularly coffee, there is limited literature on this subject for rubber. Against this background, our paper contributes to filling this knowledge gap by answering the research question “Why do smallholder farmers engage in side selling?” using primary data from 370 rubber farmers participating in an outgrower scheme in Western region of Ghana. A binary Probit regression model is applied in the empirical analysis. We find that 20% of the rubber farmers engaged in contract farming are involved in side selling. The results show that contractor’s delays in payment, delays in weighing latex and farmers’ difficulty in getting truck to transport latex to sale point are positively correlated with side selling behaviour while farmers’ age and access to extension services decrease their likelihood of engaging in side selling. To curb side selling behaviour among rubber farmers, it is important that the contractor addresses the transaction related challenges faced by farmers.

Composite effects of human, natural and social capitals on sustainable food-crop farming in Sub-Saharan Africa

This study analyzes the spontaneous impact of human, social and natural capital on food crop technical efficiency (TE) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Our study contributes to the literature by adopting the meta-analysis method to investigate the relationship between TE and the three groups of capitals to better shed light on the TE in SSA regions. Our results highlight that social capital is the most critical factor among the three groups of capitals in promoting farming productivity. In particular, agriculture efficiency benefits from increasing people’s trust in institutions and the frequency of extension visits. Natural capital like temperature and elevation is essential in determining the farming TE in SSA regions. Outstandingly, our results also indicate that calorie intake, a proxy of labor quality, should be improved to achieve better productivity.

The impacts of climate change on agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: A spatial panel data approach

This paper reports estimates of the economic impact of changes in weather variables on sub-Saharan African pearl millet yield based on panel data for 1970–2016. We control for spatial effects in all the components of our exposure–response function, plus a lag in time of the covariates through spatio-temporal econometrics techniques. Our results indicate own-location weather variables have significant contemporaneous impacts on millet yield. Specifically, we find that vapor pressure deficit, wet day frequency and temperature are important determinants of millet yield. In addition, accounting for spatial and temporal spillovers exacerbates and attenuates wet day cumulative effect, respectively, and local crop production is affected by neighboring countries’ production. The results are robust to several sensitivity checks, including accounting for adaptation using long-term averages, and are consistent across country-income groups. We also use our estimates to forecast how crop production would respond to climate change in the mid-future.

Classification of nitrogen deficiency for maize plants using deep learning algorithms on low-end android smartphones

Maize comprises about one-fifth of the calories eaten in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa have been unable to produce enough food for consumption. This is mostly due to a shortage of nutrients and the adoption of antiquated agronomic methods. Nitrogen deficiency or deficiency is a significant factor contributing to this poor yield of maize crop. Many smallholder farmers lack the necessary information to recognize this nitrogen deficit early on, when it is still reversible, before it damages their fields and maize yields. The purpose of this project is to determine a way for developing a mobile app for low-end Android phones that use a machine learning model to detect nitrogen insufficiency. The model is constructed by utilizing the Tensorflow and Keras libraries to train a pre-trained Single Shot Detector (SSD) Mobilenet model. Additionally, the approach takes advantage of Keras's built-in Image Augmentation algorithms to produce additional photos for our datasets. The model generated is 81 percent accurate. The Android application enables a smallholder farmer to maintain and analyze the soil health of several farms, as well as to determine the necessary fertilizer application to help rectify the nitrogen shortfall. Future directions in this field of study have also been highlighted for the benefit of interested scholars.

Beyond individualistic behaviour: Social norms and innovation adoption in rural Mozambique

The adoption of new technologies by smallholder farmers to support economic and human development has received increased attention from scholars and development policymakers. This is particularly true for Africa, given the importance of the agricultural sector for economic growth and poverty reduction. Nevertheless, profitable innovations, such as improved seeds, fertilizers, and crop-protection chemicals, are not sufficiently adopted by farmers. This paper aims to contribute to a better understanding of this limited adoption by examining the drivers and obstacles to innovation by smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a special focus on cultural and behavioural aspects. The concepts of social norms and peer approval are considered in the farmers’ decisions on innovation adoption. The focus is mainly on the social norm of being a ‘good farmer’, a distinction made amongst farming peers, based on the characteristics that are socially approved in the rural community. Adherence to the social norm of being a good farmer is considered one of the main drivers of farmers’ decisions, including innovation adoption. The study is based on a survey of 300 smallholder farmers in Mozambique. The results of our study show that the social norm of being a good farmer differs from that mostly shared in developed countries mainly connected to maximizing farming production. What emerges from our investigation is a socially accepted idea of a good farmer being one who is extremely concerned about others in her or his community. The results of various quantitative analyses on the intensity and adoption of innovations show that this prosocial idea of the good farmer does not prevent farmers from adopting innovations and has a significant impact on the adoption of the most radical innovations. The present study reveals the need to contextualize the analysis of farmers’ decisions in the cultural and social context in which they operate.

Compositional Shifts in Microbial Diversity under Traditional Banana Cropping Systems of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Simple SummaryIn soil, the connection between microbial diversity and plant health is vital in terms of achieving the food security. Here, we suggested the study on soil microbial diversity in diverse cropping systems of banana adopted and followed by small holder farmers over the years. We tracked down the bacterial and fungal diversity in mono cropping and intercropping systems using advanced molecular techniques. Our outcomes likewise uncovered that the impact of cropping systems on bacterial and fungal increments in plant roots and rhizosphere soil. Hence, safeguarding of soil microbial diversity is profoundly significant taking into consideration of the contributions for plant buildups and rhizodeposits into the soil.Improvements in the crop productivity, soil health, and sustainable intensification should be premised on the better understanding of interactions between the cropping systems and soil microbial diversity. In this study, we assessed variations in the microbial communities across the traditional banana-based cropping systems of contrasting monocrop vigor (vigorous or V vs. non-vigorous or NV) and the cropping system (monocrop or MC vs. intercropped or IC) using 16S rDNA (V3–V4) and ITS2 amplicon deep sequencing via Illumina platform. Sequencing results of the bacterial and fungal communities showed high variability among MC and V cropping systems. The abundances of Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria were significantly higher in NV (non-vigorous) and V (vigorous) cropping systems; and the abundances of Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes in the MC (monocropping) than IC (intercropping). There were high relative abundances of Pseudomonas (6.1–37.43%), Bacillus (4.5–20.4%), Rhizobium (1.4–6.5%), and Devosia (1.5–6.7%) in the cropping systems. The dominant family of fungal class Incertae_sedis was Mortierellales, which accounted for 8.79–41.12% of total taxa. This result indicated that the cropping systems are vital for supporting the dynamic microbial diversity specifically beneficial for bacterial communities that helps in promoting synergistic plant-soil interactions and total productivity under resource poor conditions of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

Comparison of mechanized conservation agriculture and conventional tillage in Zambia: A short-term agronomic and economic analysis

The rise of medium-scale farmers across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is offering Conservation agriculture (CA) a new perspective. Such farmers not only cultivate increasingly large land areas but also provide machinery services, share knowledge, and can act as role models to smallholders. Although mechanization may incentivize CA adoption in SSA, little research has focused on the performance of mechanized CA using four-wheel tractors (4WTs). This study explores the short-term agronomic and economic differences between mechanized conventional tillage and mechanized CA. An on-farm experiment was set up in a randomized complete block design in Zambia to compare 1) disc harrowing (DH) plus residue burning, 2) ripping tillage (RT), and 3) direct seeding (DS) plus soil cover. The experiment focused on maize and soyabean and covered two years, of which the first was more “dry” and the second more “wet”. All treatments were replicated four times and crops were rotated in the subsequent season. All operations were performed using a 60 hp 4WT. For both maize and soyabeans, DS and RT treatments resulted in higher grain yields during the dry season than DH. However, in the wet season, DH and RT resulted in significantly higher yields than DS for maize, but not for soyabeans. RT and DS plots showed higher plant densities in maize and soyabeans at germination and maturity than DH plots. RT plots produced significantly higher maize vegetative biomass (5928 kg ha−1) in the dry season while in the wet season DS recorded significantly higher biomass yields (7886 kg ha−1). The cumulative time for all agronomic operations except harvesting for both maize and soyabean was significantly lower in DS while DH and RT treatments recorded no significant differences. Fuel-saving was significantly higher in DS and RT than in DH plots for the two crops. Maize gross margin was highest in DS plots (US$790 ha-1) in the dry season compared to US$746 ha-1 for DH and US$768ha-1 for RT. In the wet season, DH plots had the highest gross margins for maize (US$685 ha-1) as compared to US$576 ha-1 for DS and US$581 ha-1 for RT. Regarding soyabeans, DS treatments had the highest gross margins in both seasons, US$537 ha-1 and US$392 ha-1, respectively. The results of this short-term study demonstrate the potential of mechanized CA among small and medium-scale farmers in SSA.

Progress in research on site-specific nutrient management for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa.

Increasing fertilizer access and use is an essential component for improving crop production and food security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, given the heterogeneous nature of smallholder farms, fertilizer application needs to be tailored to specific farming conditions to increase yield, profitability, and nutrient use efficiency. The site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) approach initially developed in the 1990 s for generating field-specific fertilizer recommendations for rice in Asia, has also been introduced to rice, maize and cassava cropping systems in SSA. The SSNM approach has been shown to increase yield, profitability, and nutrient use efficiency. Yield gains of rice and maize with SSNM in SSA were on average 24% and 69% when compared to the farmer practice, respectively, or 11% and 4% when compared to local blanket fertilizer recommendations. However, there is need for more extensive field evaluation to quantify the broader benefits of the SSNM approach in diverse farming systems and environments. Especially for rice, the SSNM approach should be expanded to rainfed systems, which are dominant in SSA and further developed to take into account soil texture and soil water availability. Digital decision support tools such as RiceAdvice and Nutrient Expert can enable wider dissemination of locally relevant SSNM recommendations to reach large numbers of farmers at scale. One of the major limitations of the currently available SSNM decision support tools is the requirement of acquiring a significant amount of farm-specific information needed to formulate SSNM recommendations. The scaling potential of SSNM will be greatly enhanced by integration with other agronomic advisory platforms and seamless integration of digital soil, climate and crop information to improve predictions of SSNM recommendations with reduced need for on-farm data collection. Uncertainty should also be included in future solutions, primarily to also better account for varying prices and economic outcomes.

Assessment of different kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) accessions in hormone-free plant growth medium and identification of the associated fungal contaminants

Kenaf is an industrial crop, which serves as income to small-holder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Unfortunately, the oily and recalcitrant nature of its seeds makes seed germination during conventional propagation almost impossible. Plant tissue culture is a viable alternative to conventional propagation of kenaf seeds, however, it requires the use of expensive plant growth hormones and it is prone to fungal contaminations. This study therefore aimed at comparing the seedling growth of four different accessions of kenaf seeds (Tianung 2, Ifeken 100, Ifeken 400, and Ifeken D1 400) in half-strength growth hormone-free Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium as well as to identify the associated fungal contaminants in this medium. Data were obtained on plant length (cm), plant width (mm), number of leaves, leaf length (cm), number of roots, and root length (cm) at 14 days after culture (DAC). There were significant differences in all the growth parameters observed (p<0.05) except the plant width (mm) [p>0.05] at 14 DAC. Ifeken 400 had the highest average plant length (14.5 cm) followed by Ifeken 100 (10.5 cm) at p<0.05. On the other hand, the least average plant length (4.16 cm) was observed from both Tianung 2 and Ifeken D1 400 at p<0.05. The highest average root length (5.3 cm) was produced by Ifeken 400 while Ifeken DI 400 had the least average root length (2.6 cm) [p<0.05]. The fungal contaminants associated with the kenaf cultures in the half-strength growth hormone-free MS media were Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp. and Penicillium spp. Therefore, half-strength growth hormone-free MS medium could be considered as a low cost alternative method of propagating kenaf seeds in order to prevent poor seed germination and allow for improvement of kenaf as an industrial crop. Keywords: Aspergillus spp ., Fungal contamination, Hibiscus cannabinus L., Plant growth hormones, Plant tissue culture DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/12-10-05 Publication date: May 31 st 2022

Indigenous African Orphan Legumes: Potential for Food and Nutrition Security in SSA

In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), both crop production and the hidden hunger index (HHI, a combination of zinc, iron, and vitamin A deficiency), continue to be worse than the rest of the world. Currently, 31 out of 36 countries of SSA show the highest HHI. At the same time, several studies show climate change as a major constraint to agriculture productivity and a significant threat to SSA food security without significant action regarding adaptation. The food security of SSA is dependent on a few major crops, with many of them providing largely only an energy source in the diet. To address this, crop diversification and climate-resilient crops that have adaptation to climate change can be used and one route toward this is promoting the cultivation of African orphan (neglected or underutilized) crops. These crops, particularly legumes, have the potential to improve food and nutrition security in SSA due to their cultural linkage with the regional food habits of the communities, nutritionally rich food, untapped genetic diversity, and adaptation to harsh climate conditions and poor marginal soils. Despite the wide distribution of orphan legumes across the landscape of SSA, these important crop species are characterized by low yield and decreasing utilization due in part to a lack of improved varieties and a lack of adequate research attention. Genomic-assisted breeding (GAB) can contribute to developing improved varieties that yield more, have improved resilience, and high nutritional value. The availability of large and diverse collections of germplasm is an essential resource for crop improvement. In the Genetic Resources Center of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, the collections of orphan legumes, particularly the Bambara groundnut, African yambean, and Kersting's groundnut, have been characterized and evaluated for their key traits, and new collections are being undertaken to fill gaps and to widen the genetic diversity available to underpin breeding that can be further utilized with GAB tools to develop faster and cost-effective climate-resilient cultivars with a high nutrition value for SSA farmers. However, a greater investment of resources is required for applying modern breeding to orphan legume crops if their full potential is to be realized.

Farmers’ Perception of the Use and Benefits of Cowpea Storage Methods in Northern Ghana

Insect infestation during the storage of cowpea is a major challenge among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Farmers use various postharvest storage methods to deal with insect pests, including insecticides, which may result in health and environmental hazards. Four hundred (400) cowpea farmers were interviewed on their perceptions and preference of different storage methods in Northern Ghana. About 58% of farmers applied insecticides, 50% used ash, and 42% used hermetic triple-layer bags (Purdue Improved Crop Storage, PICS) to store cowpea. Most farmers (85.6%) preferred the PICS technology for its effectiveness (compared to insecticides, ash, and botanicals). Reasons for the non-use of PICS bags included unavailability (39.5%) and high price (11.7%). Farmers perceived that storing cowpea in PICS bags lowered pesticide-related health risks for both farmers and consumers. Thus, there is a need to improve the availability and affordability of PICS bags in Northern Ghana.

Structural change in Africa: role of agriculture

ABSTRACT This paper argues that rapid agricultural productivity growth is necessary for the expansion of manufacturing employment as a share of total employment. This hypothesis is tested utilizing data from 15 African nations. The estimation technique utilized is dynamic ordinary least squares and represents the first use of this technique to study the hypothesis that agricultural productivity growth is an important factor in the growth of manufacturing employment. The results indicate that agricultural productivity growth is a significant positive factor in the expansion of manufacturing employment. This is important in that productivity growth in agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa has until recently been very sluggish. Thus, if manufacturing is to play an important role in this region, then significant investment in raising agricultural productivity needs to occur.

Allocation of Public Expenditure on Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Importance of Democracy and Quality of Governance

Allocation of Public Expenditure on Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Importance of Democracy and Quality of Governance

Can the Right Composition and Diversity of Farmed Species Improve Food Security Among Smallholder Farmers?

Food security and livelihoods among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are often constrained by limited farm resource endowment. It can be difficult to improve resource endowment given barriers such as low land availability and the unaffordability of agricultural inputs, so here we ask whether farmers can gain a better return on their resources through optimizing their farm strategy in terms of the composition and/or diversity of crop and livestock species raised. Our survey of 1,133 smallholder farmers in western Kenya and northern Nigeria, using a modified version of RHoMIS, indicated that different farm strategies were related to differences in food security and farm incomes. In particular, we found that it was possible for farms with a high species richness but low resource endowment to achieve similar or better food security and income outcomes than farms with low species richness and high resource endowment. This indicates strong potential for diversification to improve food security and livelihoods among smallholder farmers. However, further research will be required to prove a causal relationship. We also noted some exceptions to this trend that require investigation: increasing species richness was not beneficial for low-resourced, livestock-focused farmers in western Kenya, and increasing species richness was associated with a decline in dietary diversity in northern Nigeria (due to declines in purchased dietary diversity that outweighed increases in on-farm and other sources of dietary diversity). Similar analyses could be applied to a wider RHoMIS dataset covering a greater diversity of countries and agro-ecological zones to help identify where, and why, different farm strategies result in better or worse outcomes for smallholder farmers.

Campylobacter positivity and public health risks in live bird markets in Busia, Kenya: A value chain analysis.

Live bird markets (LBMs) provide integral hubs for 95% of poultry produced for food. Surveillance systems in LBMs serving smallholder farmers in sub-saharan Africa are often non-functional, and data about public health risks and emerging pathogens are lacking. Studies in Kenya have reported 29-44% Campylobacter prevalence in poultry. We analysed such LBMs in Kenya for likely transmission of Campylobacter from poultry to humans. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among 186 live poultry traders (LPTs) in 14 LBMs in a region with widespread backyard poultry systems. A pretested structured questionnaire was administered to all LPTs having regular contacts with poultry to gather market data and risk information on campylobacteriosis. Campylobacter was detected in individual cloacal cultures and identified through PCR. The median score obtained from the outcome of risk assessment dichotomized respondents into high and low risk categories. We performed logistic regression at 95% confidence interval (CI) to compare market characteristics and Campylobacter positivity to risk categories to identify LBM-associated public health risks. Markets had a median of 13 traders, and mean age of 46.3 ± 13.7 years. Majority 162/186 (87.1%) were males. Market behavioural processes by LPTs varied: Only 58.6% LPTs held bird species separate; onsite slaughter (38.7%); encountered sick-bird (93%) and dead-bird (83%) amidst limited health inspection (31.2%). Campylobacter positivity in live birds was 43/112 (38.4%, 95% CI: 29.4-48.1). Risk information on campylobacteriosis was low 41/114 (36%, 95% CI: 27.2-45.5). Sanitary risks were related to accumulation of litter (adjusted prevalence odds ratio [aPOR]: 19.67, 95% CI: 3.01-128.52). Accessing hand-wash facilities (aPOR: .32, 95% CI: .13-.78) and access to information (aPOR: .24, 95% CI: .09-.61) were protective. Sanitary risks were related to poor hygiene. LBMs could be central surveillance sites for Campylobacter. Public health authorities/actors should consider appropriate targeting to improve sanitary measures and Campylobacter control strategies.

A Proposed Satellite-Based Crop Insurance System for Smallholder Maize Farming

Crop farming in Sub-Saharan Africa is constantly confronted by extreme weather events. Researchers have been striving to develop different tools that can be used to reduce the impacts of adverse weather on agriculture. Index-based crop insurance (IBCI) has emerged to be one of the tools that could potentially hedge farmers against weather-related risks. However, IBCI is still constrained by poor product design and basis risk. This study complements the efforts to improve IBCI design by evaluating the performances of the Tropical Applications of Meteorology using SATellite data and ground-based observations (TAMSAT) and Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) in estimating rainfall at different spatial scales over the maize-growing season in a smallholder farming area in South Africa. Results show that CHIRPS outperforms TAMSAT and produces better results at 20-day and monthly time steps. The study then uses CHIRPS and a crop water requirements (CWR) model to derive IBCI thresholds and an IBCI payout model. Results of CWR modeling show that this proposed IBCI system can cover the development, mid-season, and late-season stages of maize growth in the study area. The study then uses this information to calculate the weight, trigger, exit, and tick for each of these growth stages. Although this approach is premised on the prevailing conditions in the study area, it can be applied in other areas with different growing conditions to improve IBCI design.

Assessing production efficiency by farm size in Rwanda: A zero-inefficiency stochastic frontier approach

This study investigates the relationship between farm size and technical efficiency for the production of maize in Rwanda. Since levels of technical efficiency tend to vary considerably across farms in sub-Saharan Africa, with a mixture of both inefficient and fully efficient farms, the use of the conventional stochastic frontier method is not appropriate. In this paper, we apply a zero-inefficiency stochastic frontier method that manages both efficiency and inefficiency in the studied sample. The average technical efficiency of maize farms for the full sample is estimated at 0.64, demonstrating that maize output can be improved by approximately 36% without increasing the proportion of farm inputs used. Regarding the relationship between farm size and technical efficiency, the study results show a positive relationship between farm size and technical efficiency for maize production in Rwanda. Thus, the enforcement of land reforms such as land consolidation and enhanced aggregate productivity growth is needed. The results also indicate that education, cooperative membership, extension services, access to credit, off-farm income, land tenure, and livestock ownership have significant and positive effects on technical efficiency.