Farmers In South Africa Research Articles

Chicken dumping in South Africa and the long-term effects on local commercial chicken farming industry: a review

The aim of this article is to highlight the effects of chicken dumping trade on South African local commercial chicken farming industry. The high cost of farming in South African has risen and this has created a fertile ground for overseas countries where chicken production costs are low to intensify their exports to South Africa for their excess chicken products at a lower price. South African chicken farmers are already facing domestic challenges which includes high-cost feed, high cost of importing chicken lines and resources to produce the meat chicken. A local single fertilised Ross 308 / Cobb 500 Fertile egg cost at least R2.50 ($0.12), whereas international, local breeders source these genetic lines at over a $1 an egg. Locally, there is persistent drought, chicken diseases, high electricity cost and electricity shortages (load shedding). These challenges inevitably raise costs of chicken production in South Africa whereas the US, Brazil and EU countries farming industries are highly subsidised and experience no high electricity costs or load shedding. In perspective, imported chicken from Brazil cost R9 per kg as compared to locally produced chicken at R25 per kg. To mitigate the chicken dumping trade, the South African government imposed legally sound chicken import tariffs of up to 62 %, however in August of 2022, the government suspended these tariffs due to rising food costs in the hope that the cheap dumped chicken would provide a relief to the financially stressed consumers. This move has raffled feathers within the local chicken farming sector which is struggling to sustain their farms due to stiff competition with the low-priced chicken, predominantly from Brazil and the US. More chicken farms in South Africa are shedding jobs. As of 2023, the poultry industry in South Africa employs an estimated total of 70,000 people, and others are questioning the sustainability of their enterprises going forward if the chicken dumping in the country is not controlled via stringent legislation that include appropriate dumping tariffs. This article suggests that both the chicken farming industry, the chicken importers and the government should hold regular dialogs to get common ground before the majority of local chicken farmers close shops due to chicken dumping. The regular engagements between the government and the chicken industry could avoid seemingly unilateral suspension of import tariffs. Subsidies that could absorb some of the operation cost, as is the case with US or Brazilian farmers should be introduced. Key words: Chicken dumping, chicken farming, sustainability, chicken production challenges

Social drivers and differentiated effects of deagrarianisation: A longitudinal study of smallholder farming in South Africa's Eastern Cape province

South Africa's smallholders have progressively become disengaged from farming despite their lack of alternative livelihood options, resulting in the deepening of rural poverty. Farming's reduced role in rural livelihoods represents a wider trend of deagrarianisation seen across contexts and geographies. While most literature on deagrarianisation focuses on its economic dimensions, this paper places the social and cultural dimensions of farming at the centre of its analysis to understand why smallholders are becoming less engaged in agriculture. Drawing on Habermas's concept of the colonisation of the lifeworld and on ethnographic fieldwork in four villages in South Africa's Eastern Cape Province, we show how local social cohesion in farming has been undermined by a series of oppressive state policies. Recent agricultural development interventions have not managed to break with this trend, but instead continue to undermine social cohesion and reciprocity. The impacts of this loss of social cohesion in farming have been most severe for the poorest households who seldom plant their fields today. Based on our findings, we suggest that agricultural development programmes should aim to build on smallholders' appreciation of agriculture, their remaining connections to the land and their sense of solidarity, rather than focusing exclusively on stimulating the development of individual entrepreneurs.

Competitive displacement and acaricide resistance of two Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) species collected on commercial farms in South Africa

Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, an invasive species to Africa, and the endemic R. (B.) decoloratus are of high economic importance in the cattle industry. Invasion of the alien species in South Africa has mostly been reported for traditional communal grazing areas where it seemed to be rapid and, in some cases, even replaced the native species. The alien species is also assumed to already be resistant to acaricides upon invasion. The presence of R. (B.) microplus on commercial farms was therefore investigated and resistance screening of both species to field concentrations of cypermethrin, amitraz, and chlorfenvinphos was determined by means of the larval immersion test. Results showed that only 3.7% (of 383) tick collections submitted were R. (B.) microplus populations. A further 1.6% (of 383) showed co-existence of the two species. Comparing the level of resistance to the acaricides between the two species indicated a mean phenotypic resistance of 66.2 and 26.5% of R. (B.) decoloratus populations to cypermethrin and amitraz, respectively. This was significantly lower for R. (B.) microplus, with 23.0 and 4.1% of its populations resistant to cypermethrin and amitraz, respectively. Closed commercial farming areas seemed to have a preventative advantage for the invasion of R. (B.) microplus and displacement of R. (B.) decoloratus by R. (B.) microplus. Regular monitoring of these two species may be of high importance to prevent unnecessary financial losses due to insufficient control and increased awareness of the threat of Asiatic babesiosis vectored by R. (B.) microplus.

A new genus and species in the diverse dung beetle tribe Onthophagini Streubel, 1846 (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) from South Africa.

A new dung beetle genus and species is described and pictured following its recent discovery on a farm in South Africa. Hathor spinosa Deschodt, new species belongs to the subfamily Scarabaeinae, tribe Onthophagini Streubel, 1846, it shows a unique set of characters. A map is provided to show the type locality of the new genus and species that has a putative association with ants.

Barking up which tree? Characterizing farmers, farms, and a behavioral framework regarding livestock guardian dog use in South Africa

Livestock guardian dogs are one of several predator control methods employed by livestock farmers around the world, but little is known about the factors that predict their use. Here we aim to understand the dimensions which influence guardian dog use by farmers. In a quantitative survey among 113 livestock farmers in South Africa, using Boosted Regression Trees, we explored and characterized the factors associated with guardian dog use. We showed that practical factors (e.g., predator type, number of farming enterprises, mitigation methods, and the frequency and extent of specific predator problems) were more likely to be significant determinants of guardian dog use than sociodemographic factors. However, psychosocial constructs relating to wildlife value orientations, empathy for predators, tolerance to predators, tangible and intangible cost, benefits of predators, like or dislike of predators, and number of positive experiences, were also determinants of guardian dog use. Utilizing the foundational constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and Wildlife Tolerance Model (WTM) we built upon these findings to show that constructs of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control explained 49 % of the variance in behavioral intention to use or continue using a guardian dog. The relationship between attitude and the behavioral intent to use or continue using a guardian dog had less significant association with guardian dog use than either perceived behavioral control or subjective norms had. Nonetheless, attitude was most strongly associated with the constructs of belief in a specific non-governmental organization, mutualistic Wildlife Value Orientations and perceptions of affordability, ease of use and the effectiveness of guardian dogs. The TPB model, incorporating elements of the WTM, provides a framework to guide and improve adoption of guardian dog programs or other intervention strategies within conservation contexts.

Adaptive thermal responses of captive Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in South Africa

The current study assessed the ambient temperatures, and those selected, by captive adult Nile crocodiles on a commercial farm in South Africa. Non-invasive data capture techniques were developed to ensure the crocodiles natural behaviours were not disrupted or altered. Thermal and climate data, over summer and winter seasons, were collected from local weather stations, an on-site Internet of Things system, and a Mavic 2 Enterprise Dual drone. The method developed in this paper transformed relative thermal maps (produced by a DJI Mavic 2 Enterprise Dual drone) into a predictive model in which temperatures were derived to within 2.6°C per pixel of a processed orthophoto. Crocodile thermal and behavioural data were extracted from the drone imagery and juxtaposed with climate and thermal data from the pen. The greatest number of crocodiles were counted during early morning winter flights and the lowest number during late afternoon summer flights. Material (concrete, water, nest, grass/sand) selection by crocodiles varied with season, time of day and daily climatic conditions. Crocodile back temperature (10.2–49.6°C, µ = 30.4°C) ranges fell within those of their positional/environmental (10.6–66.6°C, µ = 28.7°C) temperature range selections. Strong, positive, significant correlations were found between crocodile back temperatures and positional temperatures for both winter and summer seasons, highlighting ectothermy. Application of this methodology on a commercial crocodile farm facilitated the inspection of potential shortfalls of the pens design from a thermal perspective, as well as suggestions for improvements that would ameliorate crocodile thermal discomfort (relating to hyperthermia).

Resolving the identity of commercially cultivated Ulva (Ulvaceae, Chlorophyta) in integrated seaweed-abalone aquaculture farms in South Africa.

Species of Ulva have a wide range of commercial applications and are increasingly being recognized as promising candidates for integrated aquaculture. In South Africa, Ulva has been commercially cultivated in integrated seaweed-abalone aquaculture farms since 2002, with more than 2000 tonnes of biomass cultivated per annum in land-based paddle raceways. However, the identity of the species of Ulva grown on these farms remains uncertain. We therefore characterized samples of Ulva cultivated in five integrated multi-trophic aquaculture farms (IMTA) across a wide geographical range and compared them with foliose Ulva specimens from neighboring seashores. The molecular markers employed for this study were the chloroplast-encoded Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (rbcL), the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) of the nuclear, and the chloroplast elongation factor tufA. All currently cultivated specimens of Ulva were molecularly resolved as a single species, U. lacinulata. The same species has been cultivated for over a decade, although a few specimens of two other species were also present in early South African IMTA systems. The name Ulva uncialis is adopted for the Ulva "Species A" by Fort et al. (2021), Molecular Ecology Resources, 22, 86) significantly extending the distribution range for this species. A comparison with wild Ulva on seashores close to the farms resulted in five new distribution records for South Africa (U. lacinulata, U. ohnoi, U. australis, U.stenophylloides, and U. aragoënsis), the first report of a foliose form of U. compressa in the region, and one new distribution record for Namibia (U. australis). This study reiterates the need for DNA confirmation, especially when identifying morphologically simple macroalgae with potential commercial applications.

A South African Perspective on the Microbiological and Chemical Quality of Meat: Plausible Public Health Implications.

Meat comprises proteins, fats, vitamins, and trace elements, essential nutrients for the growth and development of the body. The increased demand for meat necessitates the use of antibiotics in intensive farming to sustain and raise productivity. However, the high water activity, the neutral pH, and the high protein content of meat create a favourable milieu for the growth and the persistence of bacteria. Meat serves as a portal for the spread of foodborne diseases. This occurs because of contamination. This review presents information on animal farming in South Africa, the microbial and chemical contamination of meat, and the consequential effects on public health. In South Africa, the sales of meat can be operated both formally and informally. Meat becomes exposed to contamination with different categories of microbes, originating from varying sources during preparation, processing, packaging, storage, and serving to consumers. Apparently, meat harbours diverse pathogenic microorganisms and antibiotic residues alongside the occurrence of drug resistance in zoonotic pathogens, due to the improper use of antibiotics during farming. Different findings obtained across the country showed variations in prevalence of bacteria and multidrug-resistant bacteria studied, which could be explained by the differences in the manufacturer practices, handling processes from producers to consumers, and the success of the hygienic measures employed during production. Furthermore, variation in the socioeconomic and political factors and differences in bacterial strains, geographical area, time, climatic factors, etc. could be responsible for the discrepancy in the level of antibiotic resistance between the provinces. Bacteria identified in meat including Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., etc. are incriminated as pathogenic agents causing serious infections in human and their drug-resistant counterparts can cause prolonged infection plus long hospital stays, increased mortality and morbidity as well as huge socioeconomic burden and even death. Therefore, uncooked meat or improperly cooked meat consumed by the population serves as a risk to human health.

Remote body condition scoring of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) using uncrewed aerial vehicle derived morphometrics

Population surveys of crocodilians using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAV) or drones may become accurate and cost-effective alternatives to more traditional approaches. However, there are currently no quantitative methods for deriving body condition scores of crocodilians through remote sensing. This study presents seven UAV-based morphometric measures collected from rectified aerial imagery of farmed Nile crocodiles. Two hundred and eighty-eight Nile crocodiles, from two commercial crocodile farms in South Africa were included in this study. One farm housed crocodiles which appeared to have wider abdominal girths than those on the second farm, allowing comparisons for a range of sizes and body condition states. An initial disturbance assessment was conducted, and an appropriate flight altitude selected for image acquisition of farmed Nile crocodiles. Altitudes between 40m and 60m above ground level suited the studies requirements and minimized disturbance. A UAV-based body condition index for Nile crocodiles was then developed, offering a non-invasive alternative to traditional condition scoring methods. The body condition index (BCI) was calculated for each crocodile by measuring the relationship between total length and belly width (with the equation: BCI = BW/TL*10) derived from photogrammetrically processed orthophotos in GIS. The BCI values were then normalized to form a body condition score (BCS) with the equation: BCS = (BCI/1.27)*4 + 1. The BCS ranked crocodile body conditions from 1-5, where a score of 1 identified a crocodile that was comparatively thin or emaciated, while a score of 5 identified a crocodile that was relatively fat or obese in contrast to the other crocodiles assessed. A BCS of 3 was the most frequent across all crocodiles in the study, with few animals scoring a 1 or 5. The farm housing crocodiles with narrower abdominal girths had no BCS 5 occurrences, and the farm housing crocodiles with wider abdominal girths had no BCS 1 occurrences. This UAV-based body condition score could be applied to large wild or captive populations for a fast-paced health and welfare evaluation.

The Impact of Public Agricultural Spending on Foreign Direct Investment Inflows in Agriculture in South Africa: An ARDL Analysis

Since the transformation of South African agriculture post-apartheid, public agricultural spending and foreign direct investment in agriculture were regarded as predominantly essential for the development of agriculture sector. However, many authors still argue whether public agriculture spending should be complemented by foreign direct investment inflows in agriculture or vice versa. Thus, the key focus of this paper is to investigate the impact of public agricultural spending on foreign direct investment inflows in agriculture in South Africa over the period 1991-2019. The Autoregressive distributed lag(ARDL) Bounds test and Granger causality were used to investigate both short run and long-run impact of public agricultural spending on foreign direct investment inflows in agriculture. The results of the long run model show that agriculture production has a positive and significant impact on foreign direct investment. However, public spending in agriculture has a negative and significant influence on the foreign direct investment inflows in agriculture. In addition, Granger causality results show causality flowing from public agriculture spending, net export and inflation to foreign direct investment inflows in agriculture. Hence, it is recommended that policymakers should take practical steps towards total eradication of misallocation and squandering of the available funds and redirected toward bridging infrastructural deficits, land restitution to promote foreign direct investment inflows the development of agriculture.

Examining the determinants of agricultural innovation activities: a case study of emerging sugarcane farmers in South Africa

ABSTRACT Since innovation is regarded as a source of a firm's development, productivity, and competitive advantage, the identification of the drivers of innovation activities is important for businesses and governments. Based on a case study of 35 emerging sugarcane growers in KwaZulu-Natal's North Coast, South Africa, this study employed the Nossal and Lim framework, which utilised the criteria and methodologies described in the Oslo Manual to measure the innovation activities of firms. The Ordered Probit Model (OPM) was utilised to estimate the factors impacting the innovation activities of the emerging sugarcane farmers. The study findings show that majority of farmers (57%) are highly innovative, with process innovation being the most popular type of innovation. Furthermore, the OPM results revealed that several socioeconomic, institutional, and farm level factors are statistically significant in explaining farmers’ capacity for innovation. Therefore, it is essential for farm managers and policymakers to consider and incorporate these range of elements that have a positive link with innovation and are crucial for new farming ideas.

Can small-scale farming systems serve as an economic engine in the former homelands of South Africa?

Small-scale farming plays a critical role in the food security of Africa. An analysis of households in two former homelands provided critical insights into the future of small-scale farming in South Africa. From a survey of 132 households, 57 from Emmaus in the uKhahlamba local municipality in KwaZulu Natal Province and 75 from Thaba Nchu in the Mangaung Metropolitan municipality of the Free State province, indicators of food and nutrition security, income, and the relative contributions of on-farm versus off-farm sources to household welfare were calculated to determine if small-scale farming could drive the economy of these areas. Results revealed stark differences at household and regional levels and were attributed to the importance of crops vs. livestock toward household welfare and the proximity of the regions to urban centers. This was demonstrated by more reliance on arable farming in Emmaus, unlike Thaba Nchu, where a nearby city allowed diversification of income portfolios. In both regions, labor constraints outweighed land limitations. It is, therefore, unlikely that increasing arable land of small-scale farmers alone will stimulate arable farming. On-farm production and consumption did not guarantee nutrition and food security. Currently, small-scale farming did not serve as an engine for economic growth in the communities and formed a small part of the income of most households. However, sustainable intensification of farm production is a plausible pathway for the small number of households for whom farming forms an important part of their income. These households have the potential to engage in more commercial activities if farming and policies can be aligned. A critical knowledge gap is how, under what context, and which forms of agricultural interventions may complement rural development efforts and contribute to the rural economy.

Advancing cane-quality management in the South African smallholder-farmer sector through participatory on-farm demonstration and knowledge exchange

Cane-quality management involving chemical ripening is an important component of profitable sugarcane production by large-scale commercial farmers in South Africa. For smallholder farmers (SHFs), however, sugarcane field size and adjacent alternative land-uses render conventional aerial crop-spraying methods unsuitable. The recent availability of spraying drones has created opportunities for chemical ripening to be introduced to the smallholder farmer sector. A network of demonstration trials based on strong partnerships of researchers, extension specialists and smallholder farmers, and participation by various industry stakeholders was established in 11 smallholder farmer regions. Knowledge exchange in each region involved an initial stakeholder engagement workshop, a series of practical field days during the execution of the trial, and post-trial information sharing events. The initial workshops were aimed at creating project awareness, defining the relative advantage that ripening with drones could deliver, identifying negative perceptions and potential barriers that might hinder adoption, and reaching consensus on trial methodology. Field days were focused on demonstrating the processes of maturity assessment to establish the need for chemical ripening and applying a ripener with a drone to parts of the fields. At the same time, control portions were left untreated, and assessing the efficacy of ripening benefits and harvest readiness. These demonstrations illustrated the judicious use of agrochemicals by only spraying fields suited to ripening. In-field estimates of cane yield and cane quality in the ripened and control treatments shortly before harvest, and in some cases, field production data from the sugar factories, revealed a range of improvements in recoverable crystal (ERC) due to ripening that was influenced by location and sugarcane cultivar. Although the SHFs expressed genuine interest in chemically ripening their crops with spraying drones, industry challenges will need to be addressed prior to wider adoption.

Effectiveness of evolutionary-tuned neurofuzzy inference system in predicting wind turbine gearbox oil temperature

Monitoring the gearbox oil temperature of wind turbines has been one of the most effective ways of increasing their reliability, and reducing maintenance and operational costs. The temperature variation is affected by several factors, including meteorological variables. Unfortunately, this is less considered in the condition monitoring of wind turbine gearboxes. Also, while the neurofuzzy inference model offers a high prospect in improving the understanding of wind turbine gearbox oil temperature behaviour, tuning its hyperparameters for such an application has been less explored. Hence, this study investigates the effectiveness and efficiency of predicting wind turbine gearbox oil temperature using an adaptive neurofuzzy inference system optimized with population-based evolutionary techniques (the genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimization). Relevant meteorological variables were selected from a case study wind farm in South Africa and used as model inputs. The hyper-parameter tuning of the neurofuzzy inference system model was carried out using population-based techniques before training the models. The performances of these hybrid models were compared based on established statistical performance metrics. The genetic algorithm hybrid model outperformed the particle swarm optimization hybrid on the test dataset with a root mean square error of 3.79, mean absolute deviation of 2.93, mean absolute percentage error of 5.9, and relative mean bias error of 1.74. The genetic algorithm-based hybrid model showed higher accuracy and reliability for wind turbine gearbox oil temperature prediction in the case study wind farm and offers potential use for neighbouring wind farms in the same renewable energy development zone.

Symbiotic interaction of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) landraces with rhizobia spp. from other legume hosts reveals promiscuous nodulation

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is one of the most underutilized and neglected legume crop used for human consumption worldwide. Unlike the common food and forage legumes, the symbiotic properties of this legume have not been studied sufficiently. This study is designed to investigate the nodulation compatibility and symbiotic performance of twelve landraces of V. subterranea with five different Rhizobia species isolated from the nodules of other legumes under glasshouse conditions. Pre-germinated seeds of each landrace planted in sterile river sand medium were inoculated with 108 cfu/ml of each rhizobium inoculum suspension and monitored with regular watering using nitrogen free Hoagland's solution for six weeks. The taxonomy and phylogeny of the five rhizobia species was determined using nucleotide sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA and recA (DNA recombination protein) genes. A concatenated multiple sequence alignment was used to construct an MLSA tree to further analyze the phylogeny of the strains. Significant differences were observed among individual bambara genotypes and rhizobia strains in terms of nodule numbers and dry weight, as well as plant biomass. Statistical analysis showed that Rhizobia strains XBD2 and XS34 identified as Bradyrhizobium zhangiangens and B. centrosematis respectively exhibited the highest nodulation compatibility in terms of nodule number and nodule dry weight with one or more bambara groundnut landraces. This study demonstrated that V. subterannea does not show preference to unique rhizobia, confirming that they are promiscuously nodulated by more than one species of rhizobium belonging mainly to the cowpea miscellany cross inoculation group. The findings of this study also provide insights into the selection and development of appropriate low cost rhizobia inoculants in the sustainable production of this underutilized legume for use by smallholder farmers in South Africa.

Operating Voltage and Frequency Regime Validation of Grid Code Requirements in South Africa

South Africa first implemented rolling blackouts known as load shedding to protect the integrity and maintain stability of their ailing electrical grid over a decade ago. Since then, load shedding has become a daily occurrence, which South Africa plans to alleviate through the addition of grid-connected renewable generation. Significant renewable energy (RE) additions can however negatively affect a grid, prompting South Africa to develop RE-specific grid code requirements as mitigation. Given this strategy to address the country’s supply challenges using RE, and the still unknown effects of the country’s aggressive RE integration planned, South Africa must perform the necessary simulations tailored to the country’s unique grid conditions, and local RE-specific grid code requirements to ensure a RE-driven solution are indeed viable. Prompted by the lack of a suitably tailorable simulation platform, this paper proceeds to discuss the development of a tailorable grid code-guided renewable power plant (RPP) behavioral studies testbed. The testing methodology involves feeding grid disturbance event data to an RPP modeled after Eskom’s Sere wind farm in South Africa, which is operated in line with local RPP-specific grid code voltage and frequency requirements to assess the testbed’s grid code-guided RPP operating approach. Results show the testbed to effectively distinguish between grid code-specified no-fault, fault ride-through, and trip conditions, operating the simulated RPP accordingly. Consequently, as compared to comparable RE integration simulation platforms, the reviewed testbed has the potential of producing individualized results, owing to its tailorable grid, RPP, and incorporated grid code guiding specifications.

Evolution of acaricide resistance of Rhipicephalus decoloratus on commercial farms in South Africa.

The development of tick resistance to chemical control plays a major role in the increasing global economic impact of ticks on cattle farming. Reports on acaricide resistance of Rhipicephalus decoloratus, endemic to Africa and South Africa, are relatively few compared to the closely related and globally distributed Rhipicephalus microplus. In South Africa, ectoparasite control became the sole responsibility of each commercial producer when compulsory dipping was phased out from 1984. Different acaricidal management strategies resulted in the simultaneous development of resistance to various acaricide groups. The establishment of a Pesticide Resistance Testing Facility provided the opportunity to test Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) populations, submitted from all over South Africa, for resistance where failure of chemical control was experienced. The number of populations resistant to cypermethrin (CM) was significantly higher than those tested as resistant to amitraz (AM), or chlorfenvinphos (CFVP). No significant difference was found between the number of populations resistant to AM and CFVP. The evolution of R. decoloratus resistance at the end of a 12year period indicated a stable but high prevalence of 90% overall resistance to CM. The same trend was seen for AM-resistant R. decoloratus populations but at a lower level of just over 40%. In contrast, CFVP resistant R. decoloratus populations showed a decreasing trend with near-total reversion to susceptibility. Multi-resistance was present in more than 50% of populations tested with the highest incidence in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and Western Cape provinces.

Profitability and market performance of smallholder potato enterprises in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is one of the major staple crops and cash crops in sub-Saharan Africa. Its reputation continues to rise due to the increase in human population and the demand for potatoes is predictable. Potato-produce has a good market reputation and is the major source of household income in developing countries, especially South Africa. However, the increase in potato enterprise comes with its share of challenges that need to be addressed. Smallholder farmers in South Africa are still facing challenges in accessing and participating in lucrative and agro-food value chains, hence their farm returns are very low. There are very few research studies that have assessed the profitability and market performance of potato enterprises. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the profitability of smallholder potato enterprises in the Eastern Cape Province. A multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to select 160 potato farmers. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, gross margin analysis, benefit-cost ratio and marketing margin analysis were used to analyze the data. The study results reveal that the potato enterprise is profitable and contributes to farmers' well-being. Farmers and sellers determined the price of potatoes. The reason for this market conduct is due to the weak characterization of smallholder farming. Performance analysis established that the total gross marketing and profit margins were highest when farmers sold potatoes to consumers and the lowest when farmers sold to middlemen and retailers. The study recommends that policymakers and government invest in improving infrastructure and educational training of farmers in terms of marketing and taking farming as agribusiness. The study further recommends that policymakers and farm organizations must strengthen institutions that take reliable and timely market information; established potato markets close to the farmers, especially those residing in rural areas. There must be a partnership established between research institutes and universities so that they constantly contribute by releasing high-yielding and disease-resistant varieties to advance the production and productivity of the vegetable sector. The study suggests that there is a need for government involvement to create strong market relations between farmers and consumers and to give suitable training to agricultural extension agents. Key words: Eastern Cape, Food security, Gross margin, Potato enterprise

Assessing the effectiveness of traditional wool scouring for small-scale farmers in South Africa: a study on detergents and scouring time

Purpose The South African wool industry is integral to the country's agricultural sector, particularly sheep farming and wool production. Small-scale farmers play a vital role in this industry and contribute to employment and food security in rural communities. However, these farmers face numerous challenges, including a lack of funding, poor farming practices and difficulty selling their wool at fair prices. This study aims to address these challenges, the University of Free State launched a wool value chain project for small-scale farmers. Design/methodology/approach In this project, one of the studies conducted assessed the effectiveness of different detergents suitable for traditional wool scouring methods for small-scale farmers who lack access to sophisticated machinery. The investigation was conducted by scouring 160 wool samples using three different detergents and filtered water as a control. The wool samples were then evaluated for their cleanliness, brightness and fibre properties through a combination of scanning electron microscopy, spectrophotometry and statistical analysis at different scouring times (3, 10, 15 and 20 min, respectively). Findings The results showed that the combination of scouring time and the type of scouring solution used could significantly impact wool quality. It was found that using a combination of standard detergent or Woolwash as a scouring solution with a scouring time of 10–15 min resulted in the best outcome in terms of fibre property, wool colour and scouring loss. Originality/value This study demonstrated that traditional wool scouring methods could be an option for small-scale farmers and anyone who want to learn how to scour wool without expensive machinery to make wool products.

Virulence Signatures, Integrons, and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Bacterial Strains Recovered from Selected Commercial Dairy Products and Fresh Raw Meat.

Bacterial species responsible for food infections and intoxication are sometimes carried through the food production and processing. Very few published literatures exist on integrons among antibiotic-resistant staphylococcal strains from foods of animal origin in Gauteng Province, South Africa, hence this study. A total of 720 samples (360 meat and 360 dairies) from a community abattoir of a research farm in South Africa, using conventional bacteriological and molecular methods. Nine (9) bacterial strains, including Bacillus subtilis AYO-123, Acinetobacter baumannii AYO-241, Staphylococcus lentus AYO-352, among others were identified and submitted to GenBank. More bacterial strains were recovered from raw meat (90.5%) than dairy products (9.5%). Resistance was shown (0-100%) to Imipenem, Meropenem, Norfloxacin, Clindamycin, and 22 other antibiotics, without any carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and methicillin/vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus species (MRSS/VRSS). Virulence genes for fibronectin-binding protein A (FnbA) were predominant (56.24%) followed by the circulating nucleic acids (cna) gene (43.75%). Others were staphylococcal enterotoxin A (sea, 41%), staphylococcal enterotoxin B (seb, 23.5%). Co-presence of sea and seb genes occurred in 11.76% of the isolates, but no coa genes was amplified. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), tetK (70.58%), linA (29.4%), and ermA (11.76%) were detected, but none of the mecA and vat genes was amplified. Class 2 integron (50%) was more predominantly detected than integron 1 (25%), but no Class 3 integron was detected. Bacteria with both the detected virulence and antibiotic resistance genes are of potential risks to human health.