Farms In Finland Research Articles

Assessment of climate change impact and resource-use efficiency of lettuce production in vertical farming and greenhouse production in Finland: a case study

PurposeOur aim in this study was to examine lettuce production in vertical farming or in conventional greenhouse production in Northern European conditions from the perspective of climate change impact and environmental sustainability. Further, the goal was to identify practices and choices that could mitigate adverse effects and increase resource-use efficiency, allowing the development of more sustainable production systems.MethodsThis article provides new information of the environmental impacts of lettuce production in greenhouses and vertical farming in Finland, compared using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. The impact categories used were climate change impact, cumulative energy demand, resource use of fossil energy sources, resource use of minerals and metals, land use, and water scarcity. The system boundaries covered the production chains from cradle to farmgate, including inputs in production, as well as direct emissions caused by fertiliser use and the onsite composting of organic waste. The environmental impacts of the two production systems with different energy scenarios were assessed: (1) a greenhouse either with average or renewable energy; and (2) vertical farming either with average or renewable energy and with or without waste heat recovery. The data for vertical farming were based on one Finnish production site and supplementary data for the construction materials. The greenhouse data were based on a previous LCA investigation of average Finnish lettuce production.ResultsThe climate change and all other impact categories were lowest for lettuce produced in vertical farming with renewable energy and waste heat recovery. The climate change impact was largest for lettuce produced in greenhouse with average energy use. For energy use and energy resource use, the impacts of vertical farming were lower than greenhouse production, but for mineral and metal use and water scarcity, the impact of vertical farming was higher for average energy use without heat recovery. Direct land and irrigation water use on the production sites in Finnish circumstances represented only a small share of total land-use and water-use impacts on both production methods.ConclusionPaying attention to the energy source and heat recovery, the environmental sustainability can be advanced in both vertical and greenhouse production systems.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infections on fur farms connected to mass mortalities of black-headed gulls, Finland, July to October 2023.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has caused widespread mortality in both wild and domestic birds in Europe 2020-2023. In July 2023, HPAI A(H5N1) was detected on 27 fur farms in Finland. In total, infections in silver and blue foxes, American minks and raccoon dogs were confirmed by RT-PCR. The pathological findings in the animals include widespread inflammatory lesions in the lungs, brain and liver, indicating efficient systemic dissemination of the virus. Phylogenetic analysis of Finnish A(H5N1) strains from fur animals and wild birds has identified three clusters (Finland I-III), and molecular analyses revealed emergence of mutations known to facilitate viral adaptation to mammals in the PB2 and NA proteins. Findings of avian influenza in fur animals were spatially and temporally connected with mass mortalities in wild birds. The mechanisms of virus transmission within and between farms have not been conclusively identified, but several different routes relating to limited biosecurity on the farms are implicated. The outbreak was managed in close collaboration between animal and human health authorities to mitigate and monitor the impact for both animal and human health.

The effects of hoof health and hoof trimming on farm profitability

Animal diseases pose a significant threat to the global livestock industry, with severe economic consequences. To minimize this impact, farmers employ various preventative measures, with hoof trimming being the most common method for addressing hoof disorders. This study analysed the economic effects of hoof trimming on dairy farms, using a panel dataset containing three years of hoof health data across Finland. This was an observational study that also addressed the issue with unavoidable confounders. To reduce bias, inverse propensity score weighting (IPW) was used, which assigned weights based on the probability density function of treatment frequency. By reweighting the data, this study improved the validity of the causal inference in the presence of confounding unobserved variables. The results of the study indicated that both infectious and non-infectious hoof disorders were notable on dairy farms in Finland. Furthermore, frequency of hoof trimming was influenced by several factors, including hoof health, farm characteristics, and management decisions. The analysis suggested a U-shaped relationship between hoof trimming and farms' profitability. Although the profitability ratio initially decreased, it increased after reaching a hoof trimming level of 97 %. The study highlighted how important systematic and regular hoof trimming is to maintain profitability.

The introduction of legume-based crop rotations: an impact assessment on cereal cropping farms in Finland

ABSTRACT Grain legume production offers multiple environmental benefits and can enhance the sustainability of farming, but the legume area has been small and declining over the last decades in most European countries. Recently, grain legumes have gained importance because of the increases in prices of feed and food proteins, fertilizers and fuel, in addition to sustainability concerns. This study investigated the impacts of introducing grain legumes [faba beans (Vicia faba L.)] in cereal-dominated crop production systems typical for southwestern Finland. To investigate the economic effects as well as the effect grain legumes have on production and land use a dynamic optimization model was used. The results suggest significant crop yield gains if farmers consistently utilize the pre-crop value of legumes and other crops in crop rotations over several years. The farm economic gains of diversified legume rotations were found to be positive but relatively small assuming past prices, but they can be significantly higher if legume and nitrogen fertilizer prices increase in the future. Overall, faba bean-based rotations have positive long-term implications on soil quality and biodiversity and thus future viability and societal reputation of farming.

Enabling factors and constraints for the adoption of animal welfare-enhancing technologies among Finnish dairy farmers

The restructuring of dairy farm production has resulted in enlarged unit sizes and production capacities on commercial farms in Finland. Concurrently, the livestock sector is facing high expectations and pressure to enhance farm animal welfare. Many dairy farms have invested in state-of-the-art technology, e.g. the proportion of milk milked by robots had risen 41% by 2019. Using a survey framework based on the constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), our aim was to explore which factors may limit farmers’ willingness to adopt animal welfare-enhancing solutions. The decision to adopt a technology can be seen as a holistic issue that is affected by farmer attitudes, farm-specific constraints, and information provided by trusted sources. The financial situation of farms, appropriate technological devices, animal welfare, and human well-being should all be considered holistically. We utilize our exploratory survey sample as an indicator for discussing the current situation. The most critical constraints were related to financial issues, farmers’ personal coping challenges, and device operation problems in the barn environment. To promote the adoption of new technologies, farmers require technical and other support from trusted groups and evidence on the functionality of the technology. The insights from this exploratory study highlight the importance of available resources; the most important deficiencies related to available resources were financial and personal capacity to cope with duties.

Avian influenza overview September-December 2023.

Between 2 September and 1 December 2023, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5) outbreaks were reported in domestic (88) and wild (175) birds across 23 countries in Europe. Compared to previous years, the increase in the number of HPAI virus detections in waterfowl has been delayed, possibly due to a later start of the autumn migration of several wild bird species. Common cranes were the most frequently affected species during this reporting period with mortality events being described in several European countries. Most HPAI outbreaks reported in poultry were primary outbreaks following the introduction of the virus by wild birds, with the exception of Hungary, where two clusters involving secondary spread occurred. HPAI viruses identified in Europe belonged to eleven different genotypes, seven of which were new. With regard to mammals, the serological survey conducted in all fur farms in Finland revealed 29 additional serologically positive farms during this reporting period. Wild mammals continued to be affected mostly in the Americas, from where further spread into wild birds and mammals in the Antarctic region was described for the first time. Since the last report and as of 1 December 2023, three fatal and one severe human A(H5N1) infection with clade 2.3.2.1c viruses have been reported by Cambodia, and one A(H9N2) infection was reported from China. No human infections related to the avian influenza detections in animals in fur farms in Finland have been reported, and human infections with avian influenza remain a rare event. The risk of infection with currently circulating avian H5 influenza viruses of clade 2.3.4.4b in Europe remains low for the general population in the EU/EEA. The risk of infection remains low to moderate for occupationally or otherwise exposed people to infected birds or mammals (wild or domesticated); this assessment covers different situations that depend on the level of exposure.

Avian influenza overview June-September 2023.

Between 24 June and 1 September 2023, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5) outbreaks were reported in domestic (25) and wild (482) birds across 21 countries in Europe. Most of these outbreaks appeared to be clustered along coastlines with only few HPAI virus detections inland. In poultry, all HPAI outbreaks were primary and sporadic with most of them occurring in the United Kingdom. In wild birds, colony-breeding seabirds continued to be most heavily affected, but an increasing number of HPAI virus detections in waterfowl is expected in the coming weeks. The current epidemic in wild birds has already surpassed the one of the previous epidemiological year in terms of total number of HPAI virus detections. As regards mammals, A(H5N1) virus was identified in 26 fur animal farms in Finland. Affected species included American mink, red and Arctic fox, and common raccoon dog. The most likely source of introduction was contact with gulls. Wild mammals continued to be affected worldwide, mostly red foxes and different seal species. Since the last report and as of 28 September 2023, two A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus detections in humans have been reported by the United Kingdom, and three human infections with A(H5N6) and two with A(H9N2) were reported from China, respectively. No human infection related to the avian influenza detections in animals on fur farms in Finland or in cats in Poland have been reported, and human infections with avian influenza remain a rare event. The risk of infection with currently circulating avian H5 influenza viruses of clade 2.3.4.4b in Europe remains low for the general population in the EU/EEA. The risk of infection remains low to moderate for occupationally or otherwise exposed people to infected birds or mammals (wild or domesticated); this assessment covers different situations that depend on the level of exposure.

What enhances dairy system resilience? Empirical cases in Finland and Russia

Dairy systems, which are the main pillars of rural livelihoods in north-eastern Europe encounter ecological, economic, and political changes in their operating environments which threaten their capacity to provide dairy supply. As uncertainty increases, there is a need to increase understanding and identify concrete tools to help food system actors manage resilience. We defined ‘dairy systems’ as a social-ecological system in which milk supply is the primary function, and humans and ecosystems endogenous factors. We conducted a qualitative empirical study to develop, enrich, and validate a theoretical framework, acknowledging social, economic, and ecological perspectives affecting the resilience. This paper identifies critical changes affecting the systems and key determinants of dairy system resilience, especially means actors can manage, in two socially and ecologically contrasting regions, Finland and Russia. The data consist of 26 qualitative in-depth interviews conducted in Finland and the surroundings of St Petersburg in the Leningrad Oblast. The critical changes confronting dairy system actors in both regions were especially related to prices and economics, policies, and epidemics. In Finland, possible cuts to agricultural subsidies, as well as an increasing workload, were perceived as a significant threat, whereas risks related to investors and resource adequacy were highlighted in Leningrad Oblast. Despite the socioeconomic distinctions between the countries, the determinants were similar and included ecological, economic, and social issues. However, the form of farm ownership proved decisive: for family farms in Finland, social well-being determinants were more important than economic ones; for investor-owned businesses in Leningrad Oblast, the opposite was the case. The results can be used by dairy systems actors, as well as administrators and policymakers, as a tool for understanding, assessing, and managing resilience.

Ways of (un)knowing landscapes: Tracing more-than-human relations in regenerative agriculture

In the face of diverse socio-ecological crises, regenerative agriculture promises to enliven rural landscapes by positioning farmers as key actors in mitigating the ‘carbon problem’ on the one hand, and adapting to it on the other. This article troubles ways of knowing regenerative agriculture through soil-and-carbon centered representational knowledge practices. Conceptually, we build on relational scholarship and use the concept of (un)knowing landscapes to suggest that agricultural landscapes both become, and become (un)known in and through diverse more-than-human relations. Empirically, we draw from ethnographic fieldwork independently conducted at farms in Finland, Norway and Italy practicing diversified regenerative agriculture. By focusing specifically on the practices of composting and processes of decomposition, we show how farmers come to know and reciprocate the aliveness of their landscapes through both proximate and distant relational dynamics: balancing between control and cohabitation, caring for and taking care of, and attending to multiple rhythms of (re)production. We argue that placing a deeper focus on soils — even when representing them differently — not only risks making proximate relations in diversified regenerative agricultural landscapes unknown, but also permits these landscapes to become known primarily through relations of distance. This, in turn, enables the commensurability of regenerative agricultural landscapes into tradable units for carbon markets. We conclude that transformation towards ecological livelihoods requires a radical reevaluation of, and accounting for, diverse more-than-human landscape relations.

Improvement in feed efficiency and reduction in nutrient loading from rainbow trout farms: the role of selective breeding.

Resource efficiency, the ratio of inputs to outputs, is essential for both the economic and environmental performance of any sector of food production. This study quantified the advancement in the feed conversion ratio (FCR) and reduction in nutrient loading from rainbow trout farming in Finland and the degree to which genetic improvements made by a national breeding program have contributed to this advancement. The study combined two datasets. One included annual records on farm-level performance of commercial rainbow trout farms from 1980 onwards, and the other included individuals across eight generations of the national breeding program. The data from the commercial farms showed that from 1980 onwards, the farm-level feed conversion ratio improved by 53.4%, and the specific nitrogen and phosphorus loading from the farms decreased by over 70%. Hence, to produce 1 kg of fish today, only half of the feed is needed compared to the 1980s. The first generation of the breeding program was established in 1992. The FCR was not directly selected for, and hence, the genetic improvement in the FCR is a correlated genetic change in response to the selection for growth and body composition. Since 1992, the estimated genetic improvement in the FCR has been 1.74% per generation, resulting in a cumulative genetic improvement of 11.6% in eight generations. Genetic improvement in the FCR is estimated to be 32.6% of the total improvement in the FCR observed at farms, implying that genetic improvement is a significant contributor to resource efficiency. The use of genetically improved rainbow trout, instead of the base population of fish, reduces feed costs by 18.3% and total production costs by 7.8% at commercial farms (by −0.266€ per kg of ungutted fish). For phosphorus and nitrogen, it can be assumed that the use of fish material with an improved FCR also leads to 18.3% less nitrogen and phosphorus flowing into an aquatic environment. Such improvements in resource efficiency are win–wins for both industry and the environment—the same amount of seafood can be produced with significantly reduced amounts of raw materials and reduced environmental impact.

Factors affecting the regional distribution of organic farming

Organic farming is recognised as a potential approach to achieve a more sustainable food system and promote rural development. Thus, many countries have set targets to increase the share of organic cultivated land. In Finland, the target was to increase the share of organic farming to 20% of the total area under cultivation by 2020. Although the share of organic agricultural land has gradually increased, there are still significant regional differences. The aim of our study is to identify the factors that affect these differences. Previous research has generally excluded factors such as subsidies from the analysis; therefore, this study explores the relevance of subsidies, as well as other key factors, within the context of the uneven regional distribution of organic farming in Finland. The data sources include research from the literature, official statistics, and a large survey of organic farmers. Using qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), we identify three different pathways that have led to higher organic shares of agricultural land in certain Finnish regions. The three regions with the highest organic shares utilise the first pathway, which includes a long organic heritage, a focus on dairy farming, and an important reliance on subsidies. We conclude that the regional variation in organic farming in Finland is due to a combination of different factors, rather than any single factor. Moreover, subsidies are a key factor that should be considered when reviewing the reasons for regional variations in organic farming.

Evaluation of Tail Lesions of Finishing Pigs at the Slaughterhouse: Associations With Herd-Level Observations.

The prevalence of tail lesions evaluated at the slaughterhouse varies considerably between herds. These lesions result mainly from tail biting, a harmful behavior with multifactorial origin. This study sought to investigate if a batchwise inspection of tails at slaughterhouse could be a useful method to estimate the animal welfare situation in finishing pig herds, and if so, what type and detail of tail scoring such an inspection should utilize. We investigated the distribution of different types of tail lesions and how well their scoring at slaughterhouse was associated with the situation recorded on-farm by a veterinarian as part of routine herd health visits. We also wanted to determine if animal welfare-related herd-level parameters, recorded by herd veterinarians during herd health visits, are associated with tail scoring at the slaughterhouse. A total of 10,517 pigtails from 84 herds were scored for this study. Herd data were collected from the national health classification register for pig farms in Finland and also included annual herd production quality data collected by the slaughterhouse. The scores of the tails varied considerably between the herds. On average, 48.1% (sd = 19.3) of the tails with an average length of 30.4 cm (sd = 2.7) were fully intact, 37.3% (13.9) had healed (length = 26.4, sd = 5.1 cm), 12.4% (9.0) (length = 28.9, sd = 4.3 cm) had minor acute wounds, and 2.3% (2.1) (length = 24.2, sd = 6.0 cm) had major acute wounds. Proportions of different tail lesions at slaughterhouse were associated with or tended to be associated with the following herd-level parameters in regression models: use of wood as enrichment (p < 0.1), one health parameter (leg problems other than arthritis, p < 0.05), and long-term animal welfare estimate (annual mortality, p < 0.05). Detailed tail evaluation at the slaughterhouse shows potential in estimating the tail lesions and long-term welfare level on the farm. By recording only one type of tail condition (such as tails with major acute lesions) at the slaughterhouse, it is not possible to estimate the total tail lesion situation in the herds before slaughter. A more detailed scoring similar to the one used in this trial is recommended.

Farmers\u2019 perceptions of farm management practices and development plans on organic farms in Finland

Organic farming is increasing in Finland, and organic farms have become larger than conventional farms, on average. As the structural change has been rapid, farmers need a broad range of new competencies to manage their farms, ranging from agronomic skills to advanced technology, labor management, and marketing skills. In this study, the characteristics of organic and conventional farms and farmers were assessed, with special focus on management practices and future development plans on organic farms. The study was based on telephone interviews of a sample of active farmers who applied for agricultural subsidies in 2014. The data consisted of 3045 farmers; 312 of them practiced organic farming and 2733 conventional farming. The data were analyzed using multivariable logistic regression. Having beef production as the main production line, having plans to develop farm production in the next 5 years, considering farm management as very important, and frequently experiencing mental strain because of farm management were significant predictors for being an organic farmer. Dairy production was less frequently organic compared to crop production. Nearly half (42%) of organic farmers planned to make changes in their farming, most commonly expanding their production. Thus, competence for managing the farm operation becomes more crucial, which increases the need for training and management consulting services. Organic farming may increase with both farm successions and new entrants joining the farming sector. Special attention should be paid to supporting these new entrants without farm-family background.

Productive performance of organic crop farms in Finland 2010\u20132017

Increasing organic production is one of the strategic objectives of the Finnish agricultural policy. Despite the positive developments observed during the last decade, reaching the objectives set by the Finnish government remains challenging. The contributions of this study are twofold. Firstly, this study provides new empirical evidence on productive performance of organic crop farming in Finland and explains observed gap between average output of organic and conventional farms. Specifically, we use the most recent available farm-level data and analyze the performance of organic crop farms over the period 2010–2017. Secondly, to estimate the performance gap between the organic and conventional crop farms, we apply one-stage semi-nonparametric regression. This approach alleviates the endogeneity problem of the commonly used two-stage estimation approaches, providing robust estimates without restrictive functional form assumptions. Our results reveal a significant performance gap between organic and conventional farming. However, the difference between productive performance of organic and conventional crop farms has been decreasing over the years. Moreover, a positive trend is revealed in organic production at the end of the study period.

Experiences and Challenges of Foreign Agricultural Workers in Finland

HighlightsBetter control of musculoskeletal workload remains a key factor in improving working conditions on Finnish farms.Orientation and training of workers should be carefully prepared with attention to content, method, and timing.Continued training is needed, especially for foremen and the increasing number of long-term foreign workers.Abstract. Foreign workers have become an important part of the workforce on horticulture and livestock farms in Finland. The aim of this study was to investigate the experiences of foreign workers regarding their working and living conditions. We conducted semi-structured theme interviews during two time periods: in 2008-2009 (n = 40 workers on eight farms) and again in 2018-2019 (n = 9 workers on four farms). We found variations in expectations and goals among workers when they take a job abroad. Compelling factors in the origin country included unemployment, low wages, and low standards of living, and enticing factors in the destination country included social relationships and expectations of better income. Personal networks had a strong role in the recruiting processes. Work on farms is physically demanding, and being a foreign worker affects social life in many ways, such as being separated from family and facing pressures from the home community to arrange jobs for others. New communication technologies have improved possibilities to stay in contact. Employers could contribute to better working and living conditions for foreign workers by improving work organization, ergonomics at work, orientation of new workers, and continued training of supervisors. Worker orientation and training should be carefully planned, taking into consideration the limited language skills, work competence requirements, and possibilities for career advancement of the workers. Keywords: Descriptive study, Foreign farm workers, Horticulture, Occupational safety.

Requirements for cybersecurity in agricultural communication networks

Agricultural cybersecurity is a rising concern because farming is becoming ever more reliant on computers and Internet access. During the last few years, the agrotechnology community, public sector, and researchers have been alerted to the problem and a significant amount of research has focused on the issue. However, the majority of the existing work focuses on external threats or specific parts of the farm technology ecosystem. This work examines the cybersecurity capabilities of individual farms and focuses on the farm local area network; the network and connected devices of six dairy farms in Finland are examined in detail. In addition, the farmers were interviewed in order to ascertain their opinions and understanding of agricultural cybersecurity. The results of the reviews were mixed. The physical cabling, for example, was all in good condition and followed appropriate regulations. On the other hand, network topology, malware protection, and system backups were not handled appropriately. Surveillance cameras typically did not work as expected. Often, the farmers did not know the network topology, the connected devices, or the details of individual devices in the network. In summary, the cybersecurity on the farms reviewed in this work was not handled optimally and significant improvements would be needed in order to secure the reviewed systems. However, since the approach of this work is qualitative in nature, care must be taken when generalizing the results. In conclusion, there is a significant need for improvements in agricultural cybersecurity on the level of individual farms. Many of the threats faced by farms are caused by their own activity or the physical environment and thus, emphasis must be put on improving their own situations.

The Dynamics of (De)Stigmatization: Boundary construction in the nascent category of organic farming

This study finds that it is possible for organizations in emerging categories to resist stigmatization through discursive reconstruction of the central and distinctive characteristics of the category in question. We examined the emerging market of organic farming in Finland and discovered how resistance to stigmatization was both an internal and an external power struggle in the organic farming community. Over time, the label of organic farming was manipulated and the practice of farming was associated with more conventional and familiar contexts, while the stigma was diverted at the same time to biodynamic farming. We develop a process model for removal of stigma from a nascent category through stigma diversion. We find that stigma diversion forces the core community to (re)define themselves in relation to the excluded community and the mainstream. We also discuss how notoriety can be an individuating phenomenon that helps categorical members conduct identity work and contributes to stigma removal.

Description of two Serratia marcescens associated mastitis outbreaks in Finnish dairy farms and a review of literature

BackgroundInfection with Serratia spp. have been associated with mastitis outbreaks in dairy cattle herds. Environmental contamination or a point source, like a teat dip product, have often been observed to be potential sources of such outbreaks. We describe two Serratia marcescens associated mastitis outbreaks associated with a contaminated teat dip containing a tertiary alkyl amine, n,n-bis (3-aminopropyl) dodecylamine in two dairy cattle farms in Finland. S. marcescens strains isolated from milk and environmental samples were identified by the MALDI-TOF method.ResultsSix specimens (n = 19) on Herd 1 and all specimens (n = 9) on Herd 2 were positive for S. marcescens. Positive specimens were from mastitis milk and teat dip liquid and equipment. Bacteria were not isolated from the unopened teat dip canister. The same clone of S. marcescens was isolated from milk samples and teat dip samples within the farms. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis results to the S. marcescens isolates from these two different herds were tested with unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic average clustering analysis. The isolates were not same clone in both herds, because similarity in that test was only 75% when cut-off value to similarity is 85%.ConclusionsOur investigation showed that the post milking teat dip and/or temporary containers were contaminated with S. marcescens and these were most likely the sources for new mastitis cases. The negative result from the unopened teat dip canister and positive results from refillable containers demonstrated that the product itself was not contaminated with S. marcescens at the production unit, but became contaminated at the farm level.

Strategic decisions and economic evaluation of horticulture farms in Finland

Strategic decisions and economic evaluation of horticulture farms in Finland

Structural characterization of piglet producing farms and their sow removal patterns in Finland

BackgroundThe main objectives of this observational, cross-sectional study were to characterize piglet producing farms in Finland and to investigate how farm profiles are associated with sow culling and mortality.The study was conducted on 43 farms during 2014. A questionnaire survey was administered in-person and supplemented with observations in the housing facilities. Annual removal figures and average monthly sow inventories were retrieved from a centralized animal data recording system (National Swine Registry) administered by the Finnish Food Authority. Multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical clustering were used to explore the complex underlying data-driven patterns.ResultsSow removal varied markedly between farms with an overall average culling percentage of 38.0% (95% CI 34.1–42.0) and a relatively high average mortality percentage 9.7% (95% CI 7.9–11.5). We identified three farm clusters, which differed both in their typologies and removal patterns. Cluster 1 included farms with features indicative of a semi-intensive or intensive kind of farming, such as larger herd and room sizes, higher stocking density and more sows per caretaker. Most of the cluster 1 farms exceeded the investigated cut-off levels for culling and mortality. Cluster 2 farms were estimated to have the best animal welfare among the sample farms based on a combination of environmental indicators (e.g. amount of bedding, rooting and nesting materials, space allowance, pen cleanliness) and the lowest level of sow mortality as an animal-based indicator. Cluster 3 farms followed a strategy of a rather non-intensified system based on the predominance of smaller herd size, lower stocking density and less sows per caretaker, combined breeding and gestation rooms and rare use of farrowing induction. This cluster showed the lowest culling levels within the sample.ConclusionsThis study captures the diversity among Finnish sow farms and provides a baseline assessment of their practices and facilities. Our results support the notion that farm typologies are associated with sow culling and mortality. In summary, the control of suboptimal sow removal cannot be based on single improvements only, because of other limitations within the individual farm resources.