Farming Systems Research Research Articles

Evolution of farming systems and system philosophy

Farming systems (FSs), and ways of thinking about them, evolved in space and time. Rapid evolution took place in the last two decades when crop and livestock yields increased, together with concerns about their socio-economic and biophysical tradeoffs. The application of farming systems research (FSR) to agricultural development was a response to problems arising from a predominantly reductionist approach to research and a cornucopian view of external inputs. Modern technologies were either not welcome or caused unexpected negative trade-offs. This paper reviews definitions and forms of FSR and the need for evolution in thinking about agricultural development. Application of thermodynamic theory (TDT)I to the study of farming systems influences discussion between cornucopians and conservationists, and between reductionist and holistic approaches to research. There is a need to recognize context (suitability of technology), and to pay more attention to relations within systems (system dynamics) and to defining criteria for sustainability. The paper links biophysical and socio-economic processes, gives a physical background for the anthropomorphic concepts of waste, and reviews aspects of objectivism and constructivism. It is argued that FSR can only advance if the full portent of these issues is considered in thinking about development of FSs. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

HOUSEHOLD TYPOLOGY FOR RELATING SOCIAL DIVERSITY AND TECHNICAL CHANGE

Various South African policy statements and strategy proposals argue that farmer focused planning and farming systems research approaches are required for the development of policies, strategies and project activities to m e farmers efficiently. Then, the question is how to give a practical content to these requirements, and how to avoid that technical farm relations could be emphasised without recognising the diversity in farming situations and without contextualising such technical relationships in the wider social, economic and political environment. In this prospect a research, based on rural household surveys, has been carried out in the Khambashe area of the Eastern Cape Province. On the basis of this example, the authors discuss the usefulness of household typologies to link social diversity and technical change.

Participatory action research and quantitative analysis for nutrient management in southern Mali: a fruitful marriage?

A farmer participatory action research process was developed by the Malian Farming Systems Research team to assist farmers improving the practices of soil fertility management. The process is based on a relatively simple and quick analysis of farm diversity regarding soil fertility management, followed by resource flow models made by test farmers. These models are farmers' major tool to diagnose the way they manage soil fertility, and to plan and evaluate improvements over time. To evaluate the process, an analytical framework has been developed, using the data from the resource flow models. Both management performance indicators based on farmers' perception of good soil fertility management and farm level nutrient flows and partial balances have been monitored. It allowed assessment of differences between farm classes and changes over time, and comparison of farmers' performance with standard references. The results show that resource flow models are an operationally useful tool. They assist farmers in analysing their soil fertility strategies, and in planning step-wise improvements. The visualisation of flows also allows for reliable and complete data collection, because omissions and mistakes are directly visible. Moreover, farmers not only provide information, but actively participate in the analysis itself. Evidence is given that information obtained through quantitative analysis based on data gained from resource flow models can improve knowledge and perception of the major actors involved in the process: researchers and farmers. Examples are given that show that marrying participatory action research and quantitative analysis can lead to planning, experimenting and adapting ways to improve the use of scarce local resources.

A systems approach for the promotion of integrated aquaculture*

A broad definition of integrated aquaculture based on linkages between human activities in general rather than on agriculture (including aquaculture) specifically, has merit. This recognizes that the world is changing rapidly and is becoming increasingly diverse and complex; by the end of the millennium more people will live in urban/industrial than rural areas. A framework comprising three interrelated aspects (production technology, social and economic aspects, and environmental aspects) is presented to facilitate study of sustainable farms. The need for a systems approach, which recognizes that integrated aquaculture comprises a range of systems involving various interrelated factors, is illustrated by reference to widespread misconceptions concerning two integrated culture systems: the dyke‐pond system of south China, and feedlot livestock/fish. The case is made that the major constraints facing the promotion of aquaculture are the limited ability of developing countries to assimilate existing technology and limited local capacity in education, research and development. A conceptual framework for the promotion of integrated aquaculture is also presented. The framework comprises theory and practice interrelated with human resources or capacity as a better understanding of the former would facilitate the activities of the actors or players, the latter, who promote or execute aquaculture. National institutes should promote aquaculture in their areas of influence following a farming systems research and extension methodology. Furthermore, financial and technical assistance would be more effective if it were better co‐ordinated.

Farming systems research: relevance to Australia

Summary. Farming systems research was introduced into many international and national agricultural research institutes in lower income countries in the 1970s and 1980s with the purpose of improving the relevance of research for small-scale farmers. This review outlines the origin, context, goals, principles and process of farming systems research in these countries, and aims to enable agricultural professionals to assess the relevance and value of farming systems research to their work in particular situations in Australia and overseas. The key elements of farming systems research include a holistic approach, orientation towards the needs of defined target groups, high levels of farmer participation and hence co-learning by farmers and specialists. There is guidance by facilitators, continuous evaluation and linkage to policy makers. The goal of farming systems research is to improve the well-being of farmers through development of farming systems. It involves application of methods from various disciplines, first to define the constraints and opportunities for development and then to overcome these in a research process involving farmers, with specialists and policy makers. A generalised farming systems research procedure and various research activities are described. Initially in lower income countries, a fairly standard farming systems research procedure was used, but farming systems research has evolved to encompass a range of activities commonly regarded as the realm of agricultural extension or rural development. Basic science, applied science and farming systems research are compared in terms of the roles and relationships of the people involved in the research process. The implications of selecting farming systems research as a model for rural research and development are discussed. Achieving adequate levels of farmer participation can be a major issue in farming systems research so it is important that the principal notions of participation are understood. Success of farming systems research in Australia will depend on developing innovative ways of achieving high levels of participation. Current trends in the philosophy, practice and funding of agricultural research and extension in Australia make it timely to consider the wider adoption of farming systems research principles and practices. Farming systems research could provide a valuable philosophical and practical basis for the trend towards greater participation by researchers with end-users and extension practitioners in agricultural development programs. However, it seems unwise to adhere strictly to any one particular model of research and development from other places: farming systems research concepts are being combined successfully with those from other models, such as systems learning and computer modelling, to suit the needs of particular situations. Implications of a wider adoption of farming systems research in Australia for agricultural research and development organisations and professional bodies include, the establishment of multidisciplinary teams with shared goals, and the sourcing of funding for periods long enough to achieve outcomes. There is also a need for training in systems concepts and facilitation, for reputable channels of publication of the results of farming systems research and for greater recognition of participatory activities as valid forms of agricultural research.

Implementing the World Food Summit Plan of Action: organisational issues in multi-sectoral planning

Despite current ideological and philosophical objections to planning, it survives in new forms, generating Policy Framework Papers, Poverty Assessments or multi-sectoral Action Plans to implement the resolutions of international conferences. The World Food Summit Plan of Action will generate a new wave of such plans. History shows that the road to multi-sectoral planning is littered with organisational elephant-traps. The traps can be avoided, however, by learning the lessons of past experiments with multi-disciplinary or multi-sectoral planning. The literatures on integrated rural development, multi-sectoral nutrition planning, farming systems research, national food security planning, poverty planning and industrial organisation are all of help. They suggest that the key is to establish a task culture, characterised by co-operative goal definition, a high degree of participation, supportive leadership, and strong integration of planning and implementation. A ten point action plan is derived from these principles for follow-up to the World Food Summit.

Systems methodologies for sustainable natural resources research and development

Systems methodologies are helping to reshape the way in which natural resource Research and Development (R&D) is conducted but they are under-utilised and under-researched. This paper outlines some recent trends in systems thinking, and argues the case for the use and further development of systems methodologies for research and development in sustainable natural resource management (NRM R&D). Systems, or complexity, research reveals the inadequacy of development projects which are based on blueprints and certainty derived from linear projections into the future. Two strands of NRM R&D are explored: farming systems research (FSR) and systems learning. Both have been extended from farming to rural livelihood and food systems. This improves their holistic claims but increases demands on them. FSR acknowledges that both natural and socio-economic science are necessary to NRM but has had limited success in synthesising them. The systems learning strand is increasingly apparent but is still under-researched despite successes. Research to further adapt and develop systems methodologies in NRM contexts is identified.

Prospects for the use of corporate knowledge bases in the generation, management and communication of knowledge at a frontline agricultural research centre

The farming systems research and extension paradigm demands effective integration of knowledge from a range of sources in planning, implementing and evaluating research and extension activities. Constraints to improved research efficacy occur in relation to knowledge acquisition, storage and retrieval of knowledge and use of this information in planning research and in the production of research outputs. The development of knowledge bases through the application of knowledge-based systems technologies is posed as a partial solution to these constraints. Implementing this approach at a corporate level within front-line agricultural research centres may significantly facilitate knowledge acquisition, storage and access and its use in planning research and extension. This proposal is assessed through a needs analysis case study evaluation of flows of knowledge at Pakhribas Agricultural Centre, Nepal, a representative front-line national agricultural research centre.

Crop protection and its integration within sustainable farming systems

This paper summarises the key issues raised at a recent international conference entitled, ‘Integrated Crop Protection: Towards Sustainability?’ The British Crop Protection Council in association with the Sustainable Farming Systems initiative — a joint enterprise between the Scottish Agricultural College and the University of Edinburgh — organised during 1995 an international conference to address state-of-the-art studies in the theory and practice of weed, pest and disease management by integrated approaches. The conference also explored the contribution which sustainable farming systems research can make to mainstream agriculture. The major recurring themes were: (i) are current crop protection practices sustainable?; (ii) the concept of sustainability; (iii) the biological roots of sustainability; (iv) anticipated developments in crop protection and sustainability; (v) food production and sustainability; (vi) experimentation on sustainable farming systems; and, finally, (vii) are integrated crop protection practices moving towards an increased sustainability? The key issues raised in theme (i) were: crop protection is of critical importance to all food production systems; and the way we protect our crops today has significant implications for future generations; theme (ii): the concept of degrees of sustainability, i.e. sustainability not as an absolute concept but with the potential for systems to be more or less sustainable; theme (iii): the essential nature of developing holistic knowledge of systems, and not simply by discipline only; theme (iv): the development of decision support technology, transgenic plants and semiochemicals as tools in future crop protection strategies; theme (v): the need for continued government funding to meet the twin, and often conflicting, demands of food production and sustainability; and themes (vi) and (vii): more emphasis must be given to systems experimentation and to technology transfer, respectively.

Training in interdisciplinary team research for agricultural development: the experience of ICRA

With the increasing attention given to the social and ecological impacts of agricultural change, as well as simple productivity measures, the need for interdisciplinary approaches in agricultural research is likely to continue growing. However, the experience of the last few decades of interdisciplinary approaches such as farming-systems research is not very promising: disciplinary conflict is common, productive interaction seems difficult to achieve and practical results have been disappointing. It is argued here that interdisciplinary research requires: a) an appreciation of systems concepts; b) a common understanding of goals and objectives and skills in planning methods to reach these; and c) effective communication and management procedures to enable teams to function efficiently. The experience and impact of ICRA — now in its 17th year — is discussed to illustrate how these elements have been developed into a professional learning programme to develop these interdisciplinary skills.

Retreat or advance? Mainstreaming gender analysis at the Institute of Development Studies

This article reports the proceedings of the 1995 annual retreat of academic staff of the Institute of Development Studies, in which IDS took stock of its broad-based efforts in gender analysis. There were presentations on the strategic dilemmas of state and non-governmental organisations attempting to promote gender concerns; on the correlates of low female enrolments in education and the possible significance for developing countries' export performance of high levels of female education; on the relationship between gender analysis and the participatory appraisal (PRA) approach, and the use of gender analysis in farming systems research; on gender assumptions and inconsistencies in social welfare policies in East Asia; and on the selectivity of treatment of gender issues in current attempts to assess government expenditure policies in general and anti-poverty programmes in particular. In discussion of the presentations, some researchers displayed considerable irritation at what they saw as the reluctance of gender advocates to acknowledge and welcome the influence they had been having in colonising the intellectual agenda of development studies. Others were concerned that research into into the gender dimension at the sectoral level failed to address the all-pervasive and resilient nature of discriminatory gender relations. They felt there was a danger that the true costs of eliminating gender discrimination comprehensively were being underplayed, and were concerned that the likely failure of sectoral gender-focussed interventions to bring about the intended social benefits might lead to disenchantment with efforts to promote gender equity.

Controlling Internal Parasites in Grazing Ruminants without Recourse to Anthelmintics: Approaches, Experiences and Prospects

Interest in ways of raising stock without using anthelmintics has been stimulated by the desire for intensive grazing systems to adopt more sustainable methods of internal parasite control and by potential premiums for “organic” produce. This requires grazing management systems which are practicable and achieve levels of parasite control sufficient to meet realistic production objectives. This paper will summarise 3 years experience of lamb and cattle production without a recourse to anthelmintics on 2 production systems: a mixed cropping, lamb finishing, and cattle rearing unit and an all grass, mixed-stock, hill country unit in which all non-replacement lambs are sold at weaning. On both units parasite control was almost entirely dependent on integrated grazing management of sheep and cattle and strict systems of grazing management had to be rigidly applied. Acceptable productivity could be more readily achieved in sheep than cattle. Rams selected for resistance to nematodes were also used in both sheep flocks. Their influence on lamb production was equivocal. There is a need for more information on factors influencing parasite epidemiology and for consideration of strategies other than alternate grazing. The impact of pasture species on parasite epidemiology needs to be clarified. Current research indicates substantial differences between grasses in terms of parasite burdens acquired and production losses suffered by lambs grazing them. Grazing management may need to vary with pasture species. Also, specialty forage crops, particularly those containing condensed tannins (i.e. Hedysarum coronarium, Lotus pedunculatus and Lotus corniculatus ) hold special promise as a means of countering parasite-induced production losses and dagginess. Using biological control of free-living larval stages and vaccination, may in the long term, also prove useful. Developing effective and acceptable systems for raising stock without using anthelmintics presents a considerable challenge, to parasitologists, as well as to plant breeders, agronomists, and farming systems researchers.

Controlling internal parasites in grazing ruminants without recourse to anthelmintics: Approaches, experiences and prospects

Interest in ways of raising stock without using anthelmintics has been stimulated by the desire for intensive grazing systems to adopt more sustainable methods of internal parasite control and by potential premiums for “organic” produce. This requires grazing management systems which are practicable and achieve levels of parasite control sufficient to meet realistic production objectives. This paper will summarise 3 years experience of lamb and cattle production without a recourse to anthelmintics on 2 production systems: a mixed cropping, lamb finishing, and cattle rearing unit and an all grass, mixed-stock, hill country unit in which all non-replacement lambs are sold at weaning. On both units parasite control was almost entirely dependent on integrated grazing management of sheep and cattle and strict systems of grazing management had to be rigidly applied. Acceptable productivity could be more readily achieved in sheep than cattle. Rams selected for resistance to nematodes were also used in both sheep flocks. Their influence on lamb production was equivocal. There is a need for more information on factors influencing parasite epidemiology and for consideration of strategies other than alternate grazing. The impact of pasture species on parasite epidemiology needs to be clarified. Current research indicates substantial differences between grasses in terms of parasite burdens acquired and production losses suffered by lambs grazing them. Grazing management may need to vary with pasture species. Also, specialty forage crops, particularly those containing condensed tannins (i.e. Hedysarum coronarium, Lotus pedunculatus and Lotus corniculatus) hold special promise as a means of countering parasite-induced production losses and dagginess. Using biological control of free-living larval stages and vaccination, may in the long term, also prove useful. Developing effective and acceptable systems for raising stock without using anthelmintics presents a considerable challenge, to parasitologists, as well as to plant breeders, agronomists, and farming systems researchers.

Mobilising Science and Technology to Get Agriculture Moving in Africa: A Response to Borlaug and Dowswell

Development Policy ReviewVolume 14, Issue 1 p. 89-103 Mobilising Science and Technology to Get Agriculture Moving in Africa: A Response to Borlaug and Dowswell Janice Jiggins, Janice Jiggins *Janice Jiggins is a development consultant based in the Netherlands, Past President of the Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension, and Adjunct Professor, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Coen Reijntjes is a member and Clive Lightfoot is Director of the Institute for Low External Input Agriculture, Leusden, Netherlands.Search for more papers by this authorCoen Reijntjes, Coen Reijntjes *Janice Jiggins is a development consultant based in the Netherlands, Past President of the Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension, and Adjunct Professor, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Coen Reijntjes is a member and Clive Lightfoot is Director of the Institute for Low External Input Agriculture, Leusden, Netherlands.Search for more papers by this authorClive Lightfoot, Clive Lightfoot *Janice Jiggins is a development consultant based in the Netherlands, Past President of the Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension, and Adjunct Professor, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Coen Reijntjes is a member and Clive Lightfoot is Director of the Institute for Low External Input Agriculture, Leusden, Netherlands.Search for more papers by this author Janice Jiggins, Janice Jiggins *Janice Jiggins is a development consultant based in the Netherlands, Past President of the Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension, and Adjunct Professor, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Coen Reijntjes is a member and Clive Lightfoot is Director of the Institute for Low External Input Agriculture, Leusden, Netherlands.Search for more papers by this authorCoen Reijntjes, Coen Reijntjes *Janice Jiggins is a development consultant based in the Netherlands, Past President of the Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension, and Adjunct Professor, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Coen Reijntjes is a member and Clive Lightfoot is Director of the Institute for Low External Input Agriculture, Leusden, Netherlands.Search for more papers by this authorClive Lightfoot, Clive Lightfoot *Janice Jiggins is a development consultant based in the Netherlands, Past President of the Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension, and Adjunct Professor, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Coen Reijntjes is a member and Clive Lightfoot is Director of the Institute for Low External Input Agriculture, Leusden, Netherlands.Search for more papers by this author First published: March 1996 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.1996.tb00412.xCitations: 18 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume14, Issue1March 1996Pages 89-103 RelatedInformation

People of the plow: an agricultural history of Ethiopia, 1800-1990

For more than two thousand years, Ethiopia s ox-plow agricultural system was the most efficient and innovative in Africa, but has been afflicted in the recent past by a series of crises: famine, declining productivity, and losses in biodiversity. James C. McCann analyzes the last two hundred years of agricultural history in Ethiopia to determine whether the ox-plow agricultural system has adapted to population growth, new crops, and the challenges of a modern political economy based in urban centers. This agricultural history is set in the context of the larger environmental and landscape history of Ethiopia, showing how farmers have integrated crops, tools, and labor with natural cycles of rainfall and soil fertility, as well as with the social vagaries of changing political systems. McCann traces characteristic features of Ethiopian farming, such as the single-tine scratch plow, which has retained a remarkably consistent design over two millennia, and a crop repertoire that is among the most genetically diverse in the world. People of the Plow provides detailed documentation of Ethiopian agricultural practices since the early nineteenth century by examining travel narratives, early agricultural surveys, photographs and engravings, modern farming systems research, and the testimony of farmers themselves, collected during McCann s five years of fieldwork. He then traces the ways those practices have evolved in the twentieth century in response to population growth, urban markets, and the presence of new technologies.

Sustainable agricultural development using a farming systems approach in Zambia

Zambia implemented the Farming Systems Research and Extension approach to development of agricultural technologies during the last decade. The results seem to indicate that the inter-related objectives of increasing productivity, income and short-term food security of small-scale farmers have been addressed, but the achievements may have come at the expense of long-term sustainability in agricultural development. The system relied too heavily on farmer priorities and technologies dependent on purchased inputs. If sustainable systems are to be developed, both short-term gains and long-term sustainability issues must be included in the program. Since the FSR/E program was established in the early 1980s, relevant factors that pushed the issue of sustainability to the forefront have been recognized. These include population pressure, poor soil fertility and rising prices of inorganic fertilizer. Specific recommendations include low-input technologies, restoring soil fertility, animal husbandry and agroforestry.

Triple-Crop Rice Farming in Java:

Triple-crop rice farming is practiced in relatively few regions within Southeast Asia. This includes some areas on the island of Java in Indonesia. However, its use is not as widespread as those studying the interrelationships between population growth and agricultural production believe to be possible. Using field data gathered through Farming Systems Research (FSR) methods in a densely populated area of the Jratunseluna Basin, Java, and relying upon a perspective informed by the disciplines of cultural ecology and applied anthropology, we investigated the incentives and constraints to this farming practice. External inputs are shown to be essential. Implications for the understanding of capacity-building and sustainable development are addressed. Double-cropping is suggested as a more viable long-term approach.

IDENTIFYING SERIOUS FARMERS IN THE FORMER CISKEI: IMPLICATIONS FOR SMALL-SCALE FARM RESEARCH AND LAND REFORM / IDENTIFISERING VAN ERNSTIGE BOERE IN DIE CISKEI: IMPLIKASIES VIR KLEINBOERNAVORSING EN GRONDHERVORMING

Rural household survey data from Mgwalana (Eastem Cape) are used to assess the intensity of involvement in agricultural enterprises. This area typifies the expected results of Alan Low's theory regarding disincentives to farming in southern Africa, ie. most households do not actively use their land resources. Statistical stratification methods are developed and tested to provide the means for quickly identifying seriously committed farm households. While the percent of households identified as “serious farmers” is small, they account for a disproportionately large share of the region's agricultural production and farm resource use. They thus constitute an attractive recommendation domain for farming systems research and extension programs. Implications from Mgwalana are dram for land reform and support programs for emerging farmers.

Historical land use evolution in a tropical acid upland agroecosystem

Understanding the historical evolution of land use in humid tropical agroecosystems may assist in developing more appropriate farming systems better able to sustain dense human populations, alleviate deforestation and regenerate degraded land resources. We analyzed land use change over a 40 year period for a key acid upland farming systems research site (8 km × 10 km) undergoing rapid transformation in Claveria, Mindanao, Philippines. The landscape is dominated by small-scale cereal cropping on gently to steeply rolling volcanic Oxisols. The six slope classes identified (ranging from 0–3% to more than 60%) each occupied between 9 and 19% of the study area. Aerial photographs (1:15000) taken in 1949 and 1967, and a ground survey in 1988, were used to map land use patterns at three points in time. Settlement by in-migration began early in the twentieth century. By 1949 9% of the land was cultivated, but grassland (59%) and forest (14%) were the dominant land uses. From 1949 to 1967 the cultivated area doubled to 20%, and the proportion of grassland decreased to less than 50% of the land. The forested area remained unchanged. Subsequently, settlement by small-scale farmers accelerated. Between 1967 and 1988 the area cropped annually doubled again to 41%. Forest land declined drastically during this period to 1%, while perennial cropland (mainly coffee) increased to 30%. Land use on the steeply sloping lands (more than 15%) was particularly affected during the 21 year period: 27% was converted to field crop production, and 43% to perennial crops. More than 33% of the food crop area is now on steep slopes. The analysis of the historical evolution of land use may guide research priorities for developing sustainable technologies on sloping land based on agroforestry.

Farming systems research and rural poverty: Relationships between context and content

In recent years there has been a great deal of interest in farming systems research (FSR) as a means of getting formal research and extension systems to work with and respond to the needs of resource-poor farmers. However, the results of many FSR programmes have been disappointing. This paper reviews a number of ‘successful’ FSR activities and argues that the development and use of research approaches and methods cannot be separated from the political, economic and institutional context in which they were developed and used. A closer examination of some of the new FSR methods shows that an understanding of the specific context in which these activities were developed and used is essential to understanding the potential relevance of the methods/approaches to other circumstances. A lack of an historical perspective concerning the source and advocacy of new FSR approaches and methods is one of the reasons why many FSR programmes in the past have given rise to disappointing results.