Farm Crops Research Articles

Smart Irrigation System Using Internet of Things

This paper presents the smart irrigation system using Internet of Things (IoT) via the Arduino Mega 2560. The objectives of this paper are to investigate the concept of smart irrigation system using IoT, to develop a system using an Arduino Mega 2560 that processes the data from the soil sensor which automatically water the plant and to analyse the real time condition of soil of the plants via the smart phone that is connected to the internet. The scope of the study is focused on farming crops and gardening. The limitations of this project can be very expensive if it is applied on a big area. It had to install the sensors for every plant as it is needed to know the condition of the soil. Water pump must also be added for every plant in order to supply the water. In this project, it requires blynk application software on the smartphone and hardware implementation which can detect the condition of the plant by using the dht 11 sensor and moisture level sensor. The findings of this paper are based on the experiments that were done. The first two experiments were between smart irrigation and normal irrigation. After 7 days, the results showed that smart irrigation topple the normal irrigation. Then, it proceeded to the next 3 experiments which are with the appearance of sunlight, pH values of the water and the windy condition. The conclusion of this paper is based on the objectives which all the three objectives had already achieved. Keywords—smart irrigation, Arduino Mega 2560, soil sensor, dht 11 sensor, water pump.

Impact of Sustainable Agricultural Practices on Farm Productivity, Yield, and Climate Resilience Among Smallholder Farmers in Zambia

This study investigated the impact of sustainable agricultural practices on farm productivity, crop yield, and climate resilience among smallholder farmers across Zambia. A mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative data collection methods was used to collect responses from 244 farmers. To ensure a diverse representation across different types of farming and regions, stratified random sampling was used. Key findings reveal that the majority of farmers (75%) adopted conservation agriculture, including practices like minimum soil disturbance, crop rotation, and permanent soil cover, which significantly enhanced soil health, water retention, and resilience to climate variability. A notable 53% of farmers also engaged in soil fertility management practices, such as composting and green manure, further contributing to increased yields and long-term productivity. In terms of farm size, 44% of farmers managed small plots (1-5 hectares), with the majority (51%) practicing mixed farming. This diversification of crops and livestock contributed to increased climate resilience. The study also highlighted the role of education, with 38.5% of respondents holding tertiary qualifications, which enabled the adoption of innovative, climate-smart practices. These findings highlight the importance of sustainable agricultural practices in boosting productivity, enhancing farm resilience, and mitigating climate change effects, particularly for smallholder farmers in Zambia.

Sustainable Land Use and Value Addition Practices to Combat Land Degradation and Enhance Food Security in Arid and Semi-Arids Regions

Combatting land degradation and desertification is crucial for protecting biodiversity, mitigating climate change impacts, and improving climate adaptation capacity. A cross-sectional study was conducted at the University of Namibia (UNAM) Ogongo campus to explore land use and value addition practices aimed at combating land degradation, building resilience to climate change, and enhancing food security. Data was collected through digital photography and face-to-face interviews using a standardized questionnaire. The data was analysed using content analysis and the Chi-Square (X2) test. Findings identified key land use practices, including the cultivation of drought-tolerant crops such as pearl millet and groundnuts, water management practices like rainwater harvesting using earth dams, and modern irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinklers for efficient water use. Soil management practices at the campus focus on enhancing fertility and conservation, with the use of organic matter from cattle and chicken manure to improve soil quality. Rice husk mulching reduces evaporation and maintains soil moisture during dry periods. Adaptive farming techniques, including agroforestry, crop rotation, and intercropping, were also employed to enhance biodiversity, improve soil quality, and increase resilience to climate change. The campus has installed solar panels to reduce reliance on non-renewable energy sources and reduce carbon emissions. Artificial waterholes in the Game Park provide water for wildlife during dry periods. Additionally, the campus adds value to agricultural products such as groundnuts, beans, rice, and fruits (e.g., guavas, lemons, mangoes) by processing them into flour, juices, dried snacks, omaere, fresh milk, butter, yogurt, and biltong. The findings suggest that campuses like UNAM Ogongo can serve as models for sustainable land management practices in arid and semi-arid regions, blending education, research, and practical implementation.

Technical and technological equipment of vegetable crops production in Russia

Relevance and Methods. The study is devoted to the analysis of the state of technical and technological support for the production of vegetable crops in Russia. During the research, the following methods were used: analytical, monographic, economic-statistical and expert assessment.Results. It provides data on self-sufficiency in vegetable production, production of vegetable crops in farms of all categories over the past 5 years, as well as changes in the cost of production and the cost of sales of these products. The issues of providing vegetable growing with agricultural machinery and equipment, the introduction of digitalization processes in the vegetable growing sub-sectors, as well as existing measures of its state support are considered. As a result of the analysis of the current state of technical and technological support for vegetable growing, as well as the existing state support for the production of vegetable crops, the main elements that need to be developed to increase the efficiency of this sub-branch of crop production have been identified.Conclusion. Vegetable growing is one of the most significant sub-sectors of crop production, ensuring consumer demand of the population and food security in Russia; in order to achieve the necessary level of self-sufficiency in vegetable production, appropriate technical and technological support for their producers is necessary; to solve this problem, it is necessary to introduce innovative technologies for the production of vegetable products, as well as to provide the necessary amount of modern high-performance machinery and equipment, which is possible only with effective state support for the technical and technological modernization of vegetable production.

Post Farmer-herder Conflict Management and Relief Strategies of Farmers in Nigeria

Purpose: This study shed light on the self-relief strategy employed by farmers after their experience in farmer-herder conflict.Research Method: The survey was carried out among 150 farm households headed in four farming communities. Frequency and logistic regression statistics were employed to analyze data.Findings: Findings showed that farmer-herder conflict resulted in the destruction of farm crops and insufficient food for household consumption among affected rural households. Affected rural households decided to adopt coping strategies that reduce their vulnerability by tightening farm security, preventing future huge farm loss by sowing less, and completely avoiding of risk of conflict effects with no intention to continue crop farming by borrowing money and shifting to off-farm jobs. Education/literacy of the people and causes of conflict were found to be the behavioral control factors of the farmers.Practical Implication: The study provided recommendations for rural development advisors and policymakers to inform post-conflict management and relief strategies for effective coping and adaptation responses to farmer-herders conflict victims in Africa and other developing countries experiencing similar nature of conflict.Originality/ Value: The study is novel for reporting, for the first time, the post-farmer-herder conflict behavior of farmers in Nigeria

Barley stripe mosaic virus-induced gene silencing for functional validation of abiotic stress in barley.

The barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) uses its genomic RNA components (alpha, beta, and gamma) as an efficient method for studying gene functions. It is a newly developed method that utilizes gene transcript suppression to determine the role of plant genes. BSMV derived from virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) is capable of infecting various key farming crops like barley, wheat, rice, corn, and oats. Nevertheless, the growing acceptance and enhancement of BSMV-VIGS will benefit all kinds of plants. Abiotic stresses such as drought and salt are highly affecting plant growth, development, and production. BSMV-induced temporal gene knockdown is performed during particular stressful situations to determine their specific function. The quick physiological and biochemical changes aid in confirming the role of the target genes. VIGS has a significant role to improve crop genetics and breeding, despite having certain restrictions. Thus, exploring the possible solution and addressing these difficulties will enhance the technology in the continuous advancement of plant manufacturing. BSMV-mediated VIGS has become popular in functional genomics; gene function can be determined without permanent transformation. In general, BSMV-mediated VIGS will be very helpful in the ongoing effort to develop resilient crops.

Strategies for Oil Palm Smallholders to Improve Their Livelihood: A Qualitative Study

Abstract Oil palm is widely cultivated for its high yield of edible oil. While Malaysia is known for large-scale oil palm production, Sarawak stands out for its numerous smallholder plantations. In this region, smallholders play a vital role in both subsistence farming and cash crop agriculture, though they face challenges in maintaining productivity and improving livelihoods. This study investigates the strategies oil palm smallholders in Sarawak, Malaysia, use to enhance their livelihoods. A qualitative approach was employed, using semi-structured interviews with fifteen smallholders in Sri Aman, Sarawak, selected through snowball sampling. Thematic analysis identified key strategies adopted by these farmers. Findings show that smallholders improve their livelihoods through replanting, crop diversification, engaging in additional farming activities, and seeking support from relevant authorities and organizations. These strategies help smallholders sustain plantation performance despite challenges. This study provides important insights into how smallholders navigate the oil palm sector, emphasizing the need for targeted support to bolster their livelihoods and the overall sustainability of small-scale plantations.

Economic Justice in the Design of a Sugarcane-Derived Biofuel Supply Chain: A Fair Profit Distribution Approach

Background: In agricultural supply chains, unequal bargaining power often leads to economic inequality, particularly for farmers. The fair profit distribution (FPD) approach offers a solution by optimizing supply chain flows (materials, information, and money) to promote economic equity among members. However, our literature review highlights a gap in applying the FPD approach to the facility location-allocation problem in supply chain network design (SCND), particularly in sugarcane-derived biofuel supply chains. Methods: Consequently, we propose a multi-period optimization model based on FPD to design a sugarcane biofuel supply chain. The methodology involves four steps: constructing a conceptual model, developing a mathematical model, designing a solution strategy, and generating insights. This model considers both investment (crop development, biorefinery construction) and operational phases over a long-term planning horizon, focusing on farm location and crop allocation. Results: By comparing the FPD model to a traditional centralized planning supply chain (CSC) approach, we examine the impact of the planning horizon, number of farms, and sugarcane prices paid by biorefineries on financial performance. While the FPD model results in lower overall system profits, it fosters a fairer economic scenario for farmers. Conclusions: This study contributes to economic justice in supply chains and offers insights to promote fair trade among stakeholders.

Cropping history allows tracking of C4 cover crop residues by δ13C natural abundance

Given potato farm cropping history, the recent introduction of C4 cover crops may provide an in situ opportunity to track their residues by δ13C techniques. From 2019 to 2022 soil (0–15 cm) samples were collected on Prince Edward Island potato farms from 15 paired strips of sorghum sudangrass (SS) and C3 crops. Under C3 crops, soil δ13C was remarkably uniform at −27.7‰ ± 0.26‰, while SS cover cropping (aboveground biomass −12.8‰) significantly enriched soil δ13C values to −27.4‰ ± 0.38‰. This study demonstrates proof of concept that δ13C techniques can quantify the dynamics of C4 cover crop residues in potato farm soils.

Survey on Influence of Cultural Practices on Banana Pseudostem Weevil, Odoiporus longicollis Olivier (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Infestation in Major Banana Growing Districts of Northern Karnataka, India

The production and productivity of banana is governed by many biotic and abiotic factors. Among biotic factors, incidence of insect-pests is considered as one of the major impedimentin successful cultivation of banana. With respect to the Indian condition around eight pests commonly infest the banana crop. However, the banana pseudostem weevil Odoiporus longicollis is cosmopolite insect pest that threatens the banana cultivation. The most common management practices followed for managing this pest includes cultural practices. Diverse cultural practices have been communicated to and/or applied by resource-poor households over the past two decades to improve the overall farm health and crop tolerance to biotic/abiotic factors. Therefore, cultural practices are the only measures available to small-scale farmers for the control of banana pseudostem weevil. Hence the survey was conducted during 2020-21 to study the influence of cultural practices on O. longicollis infestation in major banana growing districts of north Karnataka. From the survey results on the cultural practices reveals that the pest severity was more severe on ratoon crop fields and the frequency recorded was 37.82%. However, the frequency recorded was 1.68% in first crop, wherein no pest infestation was recorded in main crop. Whereas, good number of farmers could not make a difference in infestation of pest between main and ratoon crop (60.50%) and in such fields infestation level was 4.11%. The banana farmers who were interacted mainly used suckers (36.13%) and tissue culture plants (36.13%) for planting followed by rhizome (24.37%), whereas few farmers used suckers and rhizomes (3.36%) for planting in a single piece of land. Accordingly, the per cent infestation of BPW was less when both tissue cultured plants (4.84%) and suckers (5.53%) used for planting. Whereas, infestation was more severe when both suckers and rhizomes were used (27.50%) on same piece of land and which was followed by rhizomes alone (16.00%).

The Vineyards of Parthian Arsacid Nisa (151–15 BCE): Rent Farming and Cash Crop Agriculture from the Perspective of the Ostraca

Este artículo demuestra que la producción de vino en la residencia real parta Arsácida en la antigua Nisa (la actual Asjabad, Turkmenistán) estaba supervisada principalmente por arrendatarios privados. La administración real protegía la frontera, proporcionaba mano de obra para la irrigación y recolectaba el tributo del rey de las fincas gestionadas de forma privada. La mínima interferencia en la producción, junto con la introducción de un impuesto en plata, obligaba a los agricultores a priorizar las vides como cultivos comerciales y a participar en el comercio para cumplir con sus obligaciones fiscales. Un aumento sin precedentes en las actividades productivas transformó el paisaje de la cordillera de Kopet-Dag. La principal evidencia bajo examen son los documentos en ostraca partos descubiertos en los almacenes reales de la antigua Nisa.

AI in Agriculture : Revolutionizing Precision Farming and Sustainable Crop Management

This article explores the transformative impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on agriculture, focusing on precision farming and sustainable crop management. It highlights how AI-driven technologies are revolutionizing agricultural practices by optimizing resource utilization, enhancing productivity, and promoting sustainability. The article discusses key applications of AI in agriculture, including crop health monitoring, predictive analytics, resource optimization, smart irrigation systems, variable rate application of chemicals, and pest and disease detection. It presents case studies and statistical data demonstrating the significant improvements in crop yields, resource efficiency, and environmental sustainability achieved through AI adoption. The article also addresses the challenges facing widespread AI implementation in agriculture, such as cost barriers, lack of technical expertise, data quality issues, and infrastructure limitations, while exploring future directions including the integration of AI with robotics and blockchain technology.

Impacts of Various Insecticide Forms on Avian Health and Mortality: A Comprehensive Review

Since the time of its synthesis and application, insecticides have prevented millions of deaths in humans, animals and avian lives. They have significantly contributed to the revolution in agriculture and human health by reducing agricultural pests and vector-borne illnesses. The chance of birds being exposed to insecticides is increased by a number of factors, including farming methods, insect and crop kinds, pesticide form, food, and habitat preferences. Granular insecticides, often used in agriculture, are highly concentrated and attractive to songbirds, shorebirds, and waterfowl. Liquid sprays, particularly those used for locust control, can affect bird species beyond agricultural areas due to wide-range applications. Treated seeds can poison birds depending on various factors like toxicity and seed availability. Despite the known dangers, many pesticide-related bird deaths go unreported, highlighting the need for comprehensive studies to understand and mitigate these effects. Insecticides have a variety of sub lethal effects on birds, such as deformed embryos, smaller broods, less vigilant parenting, weakened territorial defence, anorexia and weight loss, weakened immune response, lethargic behaviour, increased susceptibility to predators, disruption of the endocrine system, interference with thermoregulation, and inability to orient in the correct direction for migration. Therefore, exposure to pesticides lowers the likelihood of survival and successful reproduction, which eventually interferes with the growth of a robust bird population.

Enhancing the medicinal properties and phytochemical content of bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.) through elicitation with brassinosteroid, ethrel, and carrageenan

Bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.) is well-known for its high protein, steroid, alkaloid, mineral, lipid, triterpene, and phenolic compound content, as well as its medicinal properties, particularly its anti-diabetic effects. To investigate the impact of elicitors on the morphology and phytochemical characteristics of bitter melon (Jounpouri cultivar) over two consecutive years (2018 and 2019), we conducted a field experiment. The study aimed to determine the effects of Ethrel, brassinosteroids (BRs), and k-carrageenan on yield and the production of anti-diabetic agents in M. charantia farm crops. The elicitors included ten levels, ranging from a control group to Ethrel (100, 300, and 600 mg l− 1), brassinosteroids (BRs) (0.1, 0.5, and 1 mg l− 1), and k-carrageenan (200, 400, and 600 mg l− 1). These characteristics included leaf area, leaf length, leaf width, fruit parameters, carbohydrate content, total phenols and flavonoid accumulation, antioxidant activity, total acid, ascorbic acid, momordicine, and charantin. Across both years, we observed the highest flavonoid accumulation and antioxidant activity in the Ethrel treatment group. Specifically, applying 0.5 mg l− 1 BRs and 300 mg l− 1 Ethrel led to an 18.8% and 14.8% increase in momordicine content, respectively. All elicitor treatments, particularly at 0.1 mg l− 1 BRs, significantly increased leaf area, leaf length, and leaf width compared to the control group in both cropping years. Additionally, the application of all elicitors resulted in increased fruit weight, dimensions, and yield over the two consecutive years. Notably, in 2018, 600 mg l− 1 Ethrel contributed to enhanced fruit weight and yield, while in 2019, 0.5 mg l− 1 BRs exhibited the same effect. Metabolic and physiological changes in bitter squash induced by employed elicitors over two different years (2018–2019) are strongly dependent on a variety of environmental factors such as temperature and rainfall. In conclusion, using BRs as an elicitor has the potential to optimize the health benefits of bitter melon by increasing the content of two bioactive molecules, momordicine and charantin.

Strategic cultivar and sowing time selection for weed management and higher redgram productivity in semi-arid Indian regions

IntroductionRedgram (Cajanus cajan L. Mill sp.), a leguminous crop commonly grown in tropical and subtropical climates, is highly valued for its high protein content (21%), which contributes significantly to food and nutritional security. However, its production faces challenges primarily due to terminal dryness experienced during critical growth stages because of changing rainfall patterns. To overcome this, adaptive techniques become imperative as the productivity of this crop is intricately linked to environmental factors and the crop’s growth cycle.MethodsHence, the field experiment was conducted at the National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban, Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu, in South India under rainfed condition, during the kharif (monsoon) seasons of 2017–18 and 2018–19. The primary objectives were to determine the optimal sowing time and identify suitable redgram cultivars, especially in the context of the late onset of the monsoon in Tamil Nadu, a common issue under changing climate conditions. The experiments tested six different sowing dates with three redgram cultivars.Results and discussionThe findings highlighted the substantial influence of different redgram cultivars and sowing times on the crop’s growth characteristics and yield. Among the six sowing dates tested, planting in later half of June (S6) resulted in notably higher plant height (201 cm), a greater number of pods per plant (287), a seed yield of 1,112 kg ha−1, and a benefit-cost ratio of 2.61 Notably, this sowing period (S6) demonstrated comparable performance with the treatment of redgram sowing in the latter part of September (S4). CO 6 (V1) is the most productive of the three redgram cultivars, with the highest mean pant height (200 cm), number of pods per plant (237), grain yield (1,017 kg ha−1), and benefit cost ratio (2.38). Extended phenological phases along with extra days to reach phenological stages could account for the increased yield in comparison to the other cultivars. Among the two short-duration cultivars, VBN (Rg) 3 (V3) had a significantly higher mean grain yield of 958 kg ha−1 with the benefit-cost ratio of 2.24. Even though CO 6 (V1) obtained a higher yield due to its long duration nature, it matured in 187 days whereas VBN (Rg) 3 (V3) matured within 129 days. Consequently, the short-duration redgram cultivars emerge as highly suitable choices for integrating into crop sequences, thereby augmenting farm cropping intensity.

Sustainable Organic Farming Crops in Nepal in Climate Change Conditions: Predictions and Preferences

Sustainable Organic Farming Crops in Nepal in Climate Change Conditions: Predictions and Preferences

Effects of Information Providers, Channels and Types on the Adoption of Climate – Resilient Practices in Lesotho

This study examined the effects of information providers, channels and types on the adoption of climate-resilient practices in Lesotho, deviating from the usual separate analysis of the relationships between information provider, channels and types. Previous studies have generated only partial insights into the influence of different information variables on adoption behaviour, neglecting a holistic representation of the interactive effects of all dimensions of information and adoption. Using a sample of 1,659 farmers from the Bureau of Statistics (BOS) database on the 2019/2020 agricultural production survey, the data was analysed using frequency counts, percentages and Probit regression. The results show that the majority of the farmers are male (53%), less than 30 years of age (59%), possess an education level between High School form 1 to 5 (59%), have between 5 and 10 persons per household (50%) and rely on subsistence farming as their main source of income (36%). The extension services provided, as indicated by at least 90% of the farmers, include information on farm management, crop selection, input use, credit, farm machinery, livestock, crop protection, conservation, marketing, irrigation and nutrition. In contrast, the information received is more focused on marketing, livestock production, agronomic practices, irrigation and fisheries production. The major extension service providers and sources of information are public service providers and radio. Agricultural extension information providers, channels and types influence the adoption of climate-resilient practices. The study recommends that extension information providers, channels and types be matched to specific contexts for improved effectiveness.

Evaluasi Dan Modifikasi Pola Tata Tanam Daerah Irigasi Prako Berdasarkan Ketersediaan Air

Prako Weir in East Lombok Regency has limited water availability, which affects its ability to serve the provision of irrigation water. Failure to meet irrigation water needs is increasingly felt, so adaptation steps are needed to reduce more significant losses at the farmer level. This study aims to evaluate the current cropping pattern and obtain alternative cropping patterns that are more appropriate according to water availability in Prako Weir to minimize the potential for farmer crop failure. The study began by analysing water availability by calculating the mainstay discharge using a ranking method using Prako Weir discharge data. Continued analysing water requirements in the current cropping pattern and several alternative cropping patterns using the KP-01 method. Furthermore, the best cropping pattern was selected using the water balance method. The results obtained were the best cropping pattern according to the water availability pattern in Prako Weir, namely Rice-Soybeans-Soybeans, which began planting in early October, with an annual water surplus of 775.24 l/second. Meanwhile, the current cropping pattern, Rice-Rice-Soybeans, shows an annual deficit of 625.31 lt/second. However, if economic considerations are used, then the current planting pattern is still acceptable even though it is at risk of being unable to meet its water needs. However, a solution can be taken by providing water in turns.

Agricultural management reshaped the diversity patterns and community assembly of rhizosphere bacterial communities in a desert farming system

Desert farming represents human intervention in previously untouched desert landscapes, transforming natural desert areas into managed agricultural farmland. Despite the growing prevalence of desert farming, the effects of agricultural management on soil and microbial dynamics in desert environments are not well understood. This study analyzed rhizosphere bacterial community from crops (corn and wheat) in desert farms and desert plants (Artemisia desertorum) in natural desert environments to explore how bacterial communities respond to agricultural management in desert farming systems. Our results showed that the composition and diversity of rhizosphere bacterial communities were influenced more by the sampling region than by plant type. Bacterial species richness, phylogenetic diversity, and functional traits were significantly affected by moisture and temperature, whereas pH and nitrogen-related factors (total nitrogen, NO3-N, and NH4-N) were stronger correlates of functional differences in the microbial community. We found that the co-occurrence network of bacterial communities exhibited tighter and more positive interactions in natural desert, but was more stable in desert farm. Deterministic processes predominantly governed bacterial community assembly in both desert farms and natural desert, but the importance of stochastic processes increased in desert farms due to reduced environmental stress from agricultural management. These findings provide valuable insights into the impacts of agricultural management on rhizosphere bacterial communities, highlighting the roles of temperature, moisture, and nutrient supply in predicting microbial diversity, function, species interactions, and community assembly. Given the crucial functional roles of rhizosphere microbes, our conclusions can inform desert farm management practices to better manipulate microbial communities for optimized crop production.

Extent of Adoption of Selected Climate-smart Agricultural Practices among Smallholder Farmers in Laikipia County, Kenya

Aim: Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an integrative approach to address the challenges of food security and climate change. This study sought to assess the extent of adoption of climate smart agricultural practices in Laikipia County, Kenya. Study Design: This study used correlation research design. Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in Laikipia county. Specifically in the sub-counties Laikipia West, Laikipia East and Laikipia North. The study was carried out in July – August 2022. Methodology: A multi-stage sampling technique was used to obtain a representative sample of 384 smallholder farmers households across the three sub-counties. Systematic random sampling was used to select every tenth household from the sample size. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the sampled households (all of whom were smallholder farmers). Descriptive statistical analysis was used to determine the extent of adoption of selected Climate Smart Agricultural Practices among smallholder farmers in Laikipia County, Kenya. The study used a chi-square (X²) test of independence to establish a relationship in the adoption of CSA practices across the three study sites Results: This study found that crop diversification (87%), mixed farming (crop farming and livestock keeping) (83%), use of pesticides and fungicides (80%) and crop rotation (74%) were the most adopted climate smart agricultural practices (CSAPs). On extent of adoption, full adoption was highest on pest and disease control (54%) and diversification of farming practices (52%); partial adoption was highest in conservation agriculture (54%); and non-adoption was highest on agroforestry (42%). Conclusion: It is recommended that stakeholders should improve the adoption of water harvesting/use, conservation agriculture and agroforestry – critical climate smart agricultural practices in semi-arid environments.