Farmer Field Schools Research Articles

The impact of the farmer field school approach on small-scale vegetable producers' knowledge and production in Alice, Eastern Cape, South Africa

The impact of the farmer field school approach on small-scale vegetable producers' knowledge and production in Alice, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Integrated Pest Management Efforts for Eco-friendly Agricultural Production in Nepal: A Perspective

World-wide, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been considered one of the eco-friendly and powerful tools to manage crop pests. In Nepal, it has been adopted for more than two decades with its highest success in various crops. As dissemination and up-scaling tools to this approach, Farmers Field School (FFS) is being launched in numerous farming communities. The basic notion of initiation of this program was to mitigate and combat the negative consequence created by chemical pesticides while controlling insect pests in crops. In Nepal, it started in 1997 through a FAO Technical Cooperation Project (TCP). This article summarizes IPM activities ever since TCP to Second Phase of IPM Program (2008-2013) launched by the Government of Nepal with the support of Norwegian government. Until, 2012/013, altogether 3772 FFSs were conducted by PPD and FAO initiatives and 99751 farmers graduated in IPM Program, while 1175 farmers trained as IPM FFS Facilitators. More than 5000 farmers groups benefited from yearlong IPM FFS. Medium level agricultural technicians, government Officers from different disciplines and 25 participants from Council for Vocational Education and Training Centre (CTEVT) were trained as IPM Master Facilitators. IPM policy and participatory system of IPM product certification system were drafted however; they could not be finalized during the project period. Support for Master Degree studies and Bachelor degree mini-thesis were provided to students of various Agriculture Education Institution. Curricula developed for yearlong IPM FFS in different crops were adopted by CTEVT and other Institute in their academic programs. In the the later phase of project, emphasis was towards the institutionalization of the outcomes into regular program of the Government with a modified approach of bio pesticide production, plant clinics and networking. The program ignited and stressed largely on the socio-technical empowerment to the farmers and technicians. Initiation on the marketing of IPM products was also one of the outputs. This should be linked with increasing use of bio pesticides to the healthy food production so that environmentally damaging chemical pesticides may be reduced from the country.

FARMERS KNOWLEDGE ON INTERGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN CUCURBIT PRODUCTION

It is estimated that more than 50% of the crop loss is due to pest infestation. Assessment of farmers’ knowledge on Integrated Pest Management and pesticides use to manage threat pests, their safe use in cucurbit production was carried out using a semi-structured questionnaire. Results showed that cucurbit growers were categorized as youth 5% (20-30 years, 31-40 middle age and 41-50 years were considered as old age growers. More than 90% of the growers use pesticides from Agro Input suppliers for managing different pests. Respondents identified aphids as a major pest represent 40% followed by leaf feeding pest 20%, fruit flies represent 15% and the least was weeds 10%. 95% of the interviewed growers were aware on negative side effect from pesticide use both to human and environment. Less than 40% of the respondents use protective gears during pesticide application. About 30% of the growers attended short course training on IPM through Farmer Field Schools. Despite of training on IPM none of them new insect identification, monitoring, biological control agents and other pollinators apart from bees. This study showed there is a need to train vegetable growers on importance of insect monitoring, biological control agent in cucurbit production.

Sustainability education in a botanical garden promotes environmental knowledge, attitudes and willingness to act

Creating behavior change to mobilize transitions toward sustainability is a significant challenge of our time. Inspired by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s Farmer Field School, we developed a novel community-based education program to engage people in local sustainability topics. In the Sustainable Communities Field School (Field School) program, advertised as team building tours, participants from local organizations are guided by instructors through University of British Columbia Botanical Garden, while receiving verbal and experiential education on topics of food systems and choices, biodiversity conservation, water conservation, and waste reduction. We found that after the Field School program, participants were significantly more knowledgeable about environmental issues, more connected to nature, showed greater intentions and willingness to engage in sustainability actions compared to garden visitors from the general public who did not go through the program. The results suggest that interactive sustainability education in a botanical garden setting can be a useful education model to mobilize public engagement on sustainability.

Determinants of corn farmers to adapt to climate change impacts in Sagbayan, Bohol, Philippines

The need to adapt to the negative impacts of climate change is urgent especially in the agriculture sector. However, there have been no published reports whether upland corn farmers are applying climate change adaptation strategies. This study sampled 91 upland corn farmers in Sagbayan, Bohol, Philippines to determine the factors affecting their decision to employ adaptations strategies. The adaptation strategies are those soil and water management and conservation techniques employed by farmers, which is modelled using binary logistic regression. The average age of the respondents was 56 years old. Respondents have been in corn production for an average period of 30 years. More than 50% of their annual household income comes from farming (PhP 25,393). Results showed that gender, farm income, total land used in farming and value of farm assets were the determinants of farmers’ use of adaptation strategies. Overall, corn farmers are knowledgeable of the impacts of climate change; however, employment of adaptation strategies is minimal. Hence, intervention should focus on programs that will increase probability of farmers employing adaptation strategies. Such programs may include farm-to-market roads to minimize post-harvest losses, setting of farmer field school and information drive.

English

Rwanda is implementing the self-sustaining extension system through Farmer Field Schools (FFS) and Farmer Promoters (FP) approaches. The objective of this paper was to find out the impact of self-sustaining extension system in order to help stakeholders to improve its current implementation. The methodology includes a desk review of reports, face to face interview with 60 participants and 5 focus group discussions between February and May 2016. It also includes the interview of 400 trained farmers and 400 non-trained farmers. It was found that 92% of the trained FFS facilitators and 62% of the farmer promoters were very active in extension services. It was also found that for beans, the highest average yield was 1.2 t/ha for non-trained farmers, 1.5 t/ha for FFS farmers, 1.3 t/ha for FP farmers and the average yield of all the farmers was worked out to be 1.4 t/ha. It was found that FFS trained farmers produce 37.5% more than non-trained farmers while farmers trained by Farmer Promoters produce 10.8% more than non-trained farmers. In general, 37.8% of farmers apply Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) among the non-trained farmers, 73% of FFS farmers use the GAP and 68.3% of the FP farmers adopt the GAPs. It was found that 20% of the FFS group activities are involved in various income generating activities compared to non-trained farmers (10%). It is concluded that the implementation of self-sustaining agricultural extension system in Rwanda has a strong impact in agricultural development through motivation and increased trainings of farmer promoters. Key words: Impact, implementation, self-sustaining extension.

Prevalence of malnutrition and associated factors affecting the nutritional status of Adivasi (tribal) children aged 24-59 months in Bangladesh

Despite of recent progress in reducing the incidence of child malnutrition in Bangladesh, there are large disparities exists across gender, geographical regions, ethnic and economic groups. Adivasi‟s (tribal people) are regarded as one of the most exploited and deprived section of the society and their children are one of the worst victims of under-nutrition. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and associated factors of malnutrition in different tribal children aged 24-59 months. Data was extracted from a project named “Adivasi Fisheries Project (AFP)” and the study considered 125 children from four purposively selected household (HH) clusters of four ethnic groups (Santal, Garo, Oraon, and Hajong) by quota-sampling design using the farmer field school (FFS) as the sampling frame. Malnutrition status was determined by measuring underweight, stunting and wasting and the associations between variables and malnutrition status were found out. Regression analysis then confirmed the contributions of risk factors. The prevalence of underweight, stunting and wasting was 28%, 42% and 13% respectively. Malnutrition was found to be higher among Hajong and Oraon compared to Santal and Garo. Significant association was observed between family income and malnutrition status. Having a family income below 4000 BDT (~$50) significantly increased the risk for underweight, stunting and wasting. Moreover, younger mother‟s (age < 20 years) was more prone to have underweight and wasted children than their older counterparts. The study pinpointed that the standard of living of adivasi (tribal) people need to be improved and socio-demographic issues need to be addressed to tackle the malnutrition status of their children.Asian J. Med. Biol. Res. June 2018, 4(2): 178-185

The effect of farmer nutrition schools on household food production and women's dietary diversity in Bangladesh

Introduction: The nutrition situation in Bangladesh has improved substantially over the last decade. Nevertheless, dietary diversity of women of reproductive age continues to be low. In addition, global evidence on the effect of nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions on dietary diversity is still developing. The Strengthening Partnerships, Results, and Innovations in Nutrition Globally (SPRING) project implemented a Farmer Nutrition School (FNS) intervention in two divisions (regions) in Bangladesh from 2012 to 2016. FNS targeted pregnant women and mothers with children less than two years of age (PLW) in the lowest two wealth quintiles. FNS was based on three well-established, evidence-based strategies--the essential nutrition and hygiene actions, the homestead food production approach, and farmer field schools.
 Methods: This study aims to assess the effect of SPRING’s FNS program on women’s dietary diversity, measured by a women’s dietary diversity score (WDDS) based on the nine-item FANTA/FAO scale. We followed up one cohort of women who participated in FNS beginning in November 2014. We undertook a two-stage sampling design to identify these women. First, forty-four FNS groups were randomly selected from the 2,560 FNS that were planned to be implemented during 2014-15. Second, 10 women were randomly drawn from each of the 44 FNS groups, which were scattered across 38 upazilas (sub-districts), 19 each in Barisal and Khulna Divisions. Sample size was calculated to detect a 0.25 effect size in the WDDS with a power of 80% and confidence interval of 95%. Three phases of surveys were conducted: before the FNS began (Phase 1-P1, November 2014), immediately after the completion of the FNS (Phase 2-P2, July - August, 2015), and one year after (Phase 3-P3, July 2016). A total of 386 women completed all three surveys. Data analyses included descriptive statistics and t-tests. Statistical significance is tested by the adjusted Wald test with a 95% confidence interval.
 Results: The percentage of FNS participants’ households that produced vegetables, poultry and fish significantly increased between P1 and P2, from 43% to 95% (p<.05), from 75% to 87% (p<.05), and from 48% to 67% (p<.05), respectively. The increases were more or less sustained at P3, at 86%, 92%, and 63%, respectively. Additionally, the mean numbers of vegetable types grown and of chickens reared increased significantly from P1 to P2 (p<.05) and were sustained at P3, from 1.3 to 4.9 to 4.6, and from 5.3 to 7.9 to 8.4, respectively. The mean WDDS significantly increased from 3.9 to 6.0 between P1 and P2 (p<.05), and was sustained at 5.6 at P3. The proportion of women who reported consuming items promoted in FNS, such as eggs, vitamin-A rich fruits and vegetables, and flesh foods also increased significantly.
 Conclusions: The FNS approach, which supports agriculture interventions with an explicit nutrition objective, generated rapid and sustained improvement in food production and dietary quality. This study suggests that a program design based on local contexts with moderate management support and minimum material inputs can have a powerful effect on women’s dietary diversity within a short time. Furthermore, with community involvement and ownership in a context like rural Bangladesh, the improvements can be sustained, at least for one year. While this cohort study did not have a built-in control group, the magnitude of the increases in production outcomes and WDDS among FNS participants, coupled with much smaller or no increases at the population level over even longer time periods, suggested that these results were probably largely due to the SPRING FNS intervention.

The impact of integrated nutrition-sensitive interventions on nutrition and health of children and women in rural Tanzania: study protocol for a cluster-randomized controlled trial

BackgroundNutrition-sensitive interventions such as homestead production of diverse, nutrient-rich foods, coupled with behavior change communication, may have positive effects on the nutritional status and health of rural households engaged in agriculture, particularly among women and young children. Engagement of agriculture and health extension workers in these communities may be an effective way of delivering nutrition-sensitive interventions given the dearth of trained health care providers in many developing countries. This study aims to assess the effects of integrated homestead food production, food consumption and women’s empowerment interventions using a multi-sectoral approach on women’s and child’s health and nutrition.MethodsThis is a cluster-randomized community-based prospective study set in Rufiji district, a rural area in Eastern Tanzania. Ten randomly selected villages within the Rufiji Health and Demographic Surveillance Site (HDSS) in Eastern-Tanzania were paired and randomly assigned to the intervention or control arm. The Rufiji HDSS dataset was used to randomly sample households with women of reproductive age and children 6–36 months. The intervention includes provision of small agricultural inputs, garden training support, and nutrition and health counseling. This is delivered by community health workers and agriculture extension workers through home visits and farmer field schools. There are three time points for data collection: baseline, midline, and endline. Primary outcomes are women’s and children’s dietary diversity, maternal and child anemia status and growth (child stunting, child wasting, women’s BMI, and women and child hemoglobin).DiscussionThis integrated agriculture and nutrition intervention among rural farming households is a simple and innovative solution that may contribute to the reduction of undernutrition and disease burden among women and children in developing countries. Engaging already existing workforce in the community may facilitate sustainability of the intervention package.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT03311698, Retrospectively registered on October 17, 2017.

Farmer Field Schools (FFSs): A Tool Empowering Sustainability and Food Security in Peasant Farming Systems in the Nicaraguan Highlands

Farmer field schools (FFSs) emerged in response to the gap left by the worldwide decline in agricultural extension services. With time, this methodology has been adapted to specific rural contexts to solve problems related to the sustainability of peasant-farming systems. In this study we draw upon empirical data regarding the peasant-farming system in the Nicaraguan highlands to evaluate whether FFSs have helped communities improve the sustainability of their systems and the food security of their residents using socioeconomic, environmental, and food and nutrition security (FNS) indicators. In order to appreciate the long-term impact, we studied three communities where FFSs were implemented eight, five, and three years ago, respectively, and we included participants and nonparticipants from each community. We found that FFSs have a gradual impact, as there are significant differences between participants and nonparticipants, and it is the community that first implemented FFSs that scores highest. The impact of FFSs is broad and long lasting for indicators related to participation, access to basic services, and conservation of natural resources. Finally, this paper provides evidence that FFSs have the potential to empower farmers; however, more attention needs to be paid to critical indicators like production costs and the use of external inputs in order to scale up their potential in the future.

Market effects of farmer field schools in Sub‐Saharan Africa: The case for cocoa

AbstractBillions of dollars are invested in development programs, all of which have a monitoring and evaluation component and consider only the programs’ intended effects while ignoring their market effects on prices. This study analyzes the market effects of the Cocoa Livelihood Program (CLP) in Ghana. To evaluate both the benefits to cocoa farmers and market outcomes of CLP on cocoa and other noncocoa markets, this study simulates a partial‐equilibrium farm household model. The analysis shows that CLP participating households benefit by U.S.$154 per household, while nonparticipating households benefit (through market outcome) by only U.S.$21 per household, at the 2016 participation rate of 6 percent. The net welfare changes in staple food markets (maize, rice, cassava, and yam) attributable to CLP, is estimated at U.S.$850 per household. A rise in the CLP participation rate leads to a decline in the Ghanaian cocoa price. However, net gains from the program become negative at participation rates of more than 60 percent, as supply increases and the cocoa price falls. This result suggests that CLP participation could be expanded up to 60 percent of Ghana's cocoa producing households. However, expanding cocoa demand is equally as important as expanding production if participation rates exceed 60 percent.

Improving household food security in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: a comparative analysis of four interventions

Food insecurity contributes to poor nutritional status of many populations, but long-term approaches to improving household food insecurity have not been widely evaluated. This study evaluates the effectiveness of four interventions, Women’s Empowerment Groups (WEG), Prevention of Malnutrition in Children under 2 Approach (PM2A), Farmer Field Schools (FFS), and the Farmer to Farmer approach (F2F), implemented in the context of a five-year Development Food Assistance Program in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. A community-matched quasi-experimental design was used. Primary outcome measures included Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) and the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). Mean HDDS was significantly greater than the control group for three interventions (FFS, WEG, PM2A; s: 0.69–0.88, p < 0.001 for all) as was the difference in proportion of households achieving target HDDS compared to the control group (12.3–21.7%, p < 0.001 for all). HFIAS score was significantly lower for all interventions compared to the control group, but smaller gains were seen in F2F (s: -2.06 - -4.59, p < 0.001 for all). The adjusted difference in proportion of households improving in HFIAS category compared to controls was significant for all groups, but smallest among F2F (15.0–26.7%, p < 0.05 for all). WEG, PM2A, and FFS interventions had significant effects on improving household dietary diversity and food security; the F2F approach was less effective. Food insecurity remained prevalent despite the interventions, suggesting more research is needed to understand the pathways through which they were effective and how interventions could be strengthened to improve food insecurity in post-conflict settings.

WHAT ORCHARDISTS EXPECT FROM FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS ON INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT: A CASE OF IRAN

Since 2002, the implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programthrough farmers’ field schools (FFS) approach has gained some priority on theagenda of Iran’s extension services. Different nature of agricultural activities andthe specific context of farming in each area of the country have raised somequestions regarding the suitability of these training programs to meet the needs ofparticipants. In line with this, a need assessment survey in the summer of 2015wasconducted to extract the educational needs of orchardists living in west part of Iran.The study population consisted of all the grape and pomegranate growers thatparticipated in the IPM/FFS programs (N= 420). A sample of 201 individuals wasselected through a simple random sampling manner. To collect data, aquestionnaire based on Borich model was administered. Results indicated that themost important need was “to be skillful in tree pruning” and the least importantwas “to train participants based on lecturing and formal classes”, scoring 4.30 and3.24 out of 5, respectively. Moreover, “the ability to recognize the best time tospray pest-herbicides”, “practical identifying of the symptoms of plant diseases anddirect observations”, “pre-assessment of participants’ information before launchingthe programs” and “acquisition of the know-how knowledge to use bio-fertilizersand manures” were the first four priorities of respondents’ needs among a total of49. The study concluded with the idea that most of orchardists were aware of theneed to conserve the environment and produce safe crops but IPM/FFS trainingprograms could not provide them with adequate skills to perform the sound methodand practice in their professional activities.

Impacts of farmer field schools on productivity of vegetable farming in Indonesia

This study assesses the impact of farmer field schools (FFS) on the productivity of vegetable farming in vegetable‐producing areas of East Java and Bali, Indonesia. The FFS have equipped over 3,000 vegetable farmers with integrated crop management knowledge applicable to chilies and tomatoes. The FFS are expected to enhance farmers’ capacity such that they can increase production. This study employs a difference‐in‐differences (DiD) method to overcome selection bias. A survey of 250 FFS‐graduated farmers and 250 non‐FFS farmers were purposively randomly selected from the overall community of farmers. Focus group discussion was used to support the survey. The results indicate that FFS were successful for enhancing farmers’ capability in vegetable farming. Farmers who participated in FFS have higher productivity than those who did not. Farmers also could adapt and adopt the knowledge gained from FFS as they underwent a process of learning by doing. The impacts of the increase in farmers’ capacity can be more evident if weaknesses during the FFS preparation and implementation can be overcome, to ensure more participation, flexibility to fit different conditions/needs and continuous learning.

Faecal sludge reuse in Birendranagar, Nepal: a case study of the world health organisation's multiple barrier approach

Abstract This case study presents an innovative initiative to facilitate safe reuse of faecal sludge (FS) by introducing the World Health Organisation's multi-barrier approach within a Farmer Field Schools framework for participatory experiential learning. A novel FS treatment process based on fermentation by ‘effective organisms’ (EM) was piloted to test the feasibility, safety and acceptability of the resulting fertilizer. Fermented FS in agricultural application was found to perform at least as well as other common fertilizers it was compared with, while its lower cost delivered higher profits per cultivated hectare. Participating farmers found it easy to prepare and use, and viewed it favourably overall. EM-based fermentation was, however, found to be insufficient as an FS treatment to render safe reuse, particularly with respect to helminth inactivation. The paper discusses strengthening the treatment barrier, and improving the application of the multi-barrier approach by the systematic consideration of non-treatment barriers using guidance from the WHO's Sanitation Safety Planning Manual. Further research to enable effective monitoring and support systems for maintaining treatment and non-treatment barriers, and for understanding long term impacts of fermented FS application is recommended. In combination, adequately treated fermented FS may be a candidate for scale up necessary for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals.

Scaling and institutionalization within agricultural innovation systems: the case of cocoa farmer field schools in Cameroon

ABSTRACTThe farmer field school (FFS) concept has been widely adopted, and such schools have the reputation of strengthening farmers’ capacity to innovate. Although their impact has been studied widely, what is involved in their scaling and in their becoming an integral part of agricultural innovation systems has been studied much less. In the case of the Sustainable Tree Crops Programme in Cameroon, we investigate how a public–private partnership (PPP) did not lead to satisfactory widespread scaling in the cocoa innovation system. We build a detailed understanding of the key dimensions and dynamics involved and the wider lessons that might be learned regarding complex scaling processes in the context of agricultural innovation systems. Original interview data and document analysis inform the case study. A specific analytical approach was used to structure the broad-based exploration of the qualitative dataset. We conclude that scaling and institutionalization outcomes were impeded by: the lack of an adaptive approach to scaling the FFS curriculum, limited investments and genuine buy-in by extension actors, a failure to adapt the management approach between the pilot and the scaling phase, and the lack of strategic competencies to guide the process. Our findings support suggestions from recent literature that pilots need to be translated and adapted in light of specific contextual and institutional conditions, rather than approached as a linear rolling-out process. These findings are relevant for the further spread of similar approaches commonly involved in multi-stakeholder scaling processes such as innovation platforms.

Challenges of extension workers in reaching rural women farmers in Enugu State Nigeria

The study examined the challenges of extension workers in reaching rural women farmers in Enugu State Nigeria. Questionnaire was used to collect data from a sample size of 52 extension workers. Data were analyzed using percentage, mean statistic, chart and factor analysis. Results revealed that training and visit method (100%) and farmer group (98.1%) were the major extension approach used in reaching rural women farmers in Enugu State. The challenges of extension workers in reaching rural women farmers through training and visit were grouped into four - attitude related factor, institution factor, motivation related factor and supervision related factor. The challenges of extension workers in reaching rural women farmers through farmer field school approach were grouped into four - acceptability related issue, financial related issue, logistic related issue and location specific related issue. Also, the major challenges in reaching women farmers through farmer group were grouped into four - institution support related issue, organization related issues, finance related issue and communication related issue. The study recommends that existing farmers’ organization should also be properly strengthened by monitoring the already existing groups and providing services when needed. Keywords: challenges of extension workers, rural women farmers in Nigeria

Exploring Hybrid Third Spaces in the Place Mappings of Malawian Youth

This article is based on a study of Malawian youths’ understandings of place in relation to knowledge and practice and considers some implications for education. The study was conducted at Chinduzi Junior Farmer Field and Life Skills School in Machinga district in Malawi from September 2010 through January 2011. Data collection methods included place mapping and associated focus group discussions. The data were analysed following Collier and Collier’s (1986) method for analysing photographs. Youth mappings of their favourite places suggested aspects of both hope and despair. From the youths’ discussions, a sense of belonging was evident in the social relationships associated with the activities performed in their favourite places. The drawings also exhibited gendered features. Overall, the drawings and associated discussions revealed that the youth are largely rooted in their socio-cultural interactions within their community, but also influenced by globalisation – hence they operate within what Homi Bhabha (1994) calls ‘hybrid third spaces’. In these spaces, they use their imagination to create optimistic futures. These findings have implications for environment-related education. People are part of and shaped by place; at the same time, they shape place through everyday social practices. Thus, studies on environment-related education in a particular local context need to take into account variations in experience based on learners’ diverse backgrounds. Pedagogical engagements should consider the socio-cultural experiences of learners in particular contexts.

Food Security and Nutrition Outcomes of Farmer Field Schools in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Food and nutrition security in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo are threatened by political instability and chronic poverty. The Jenga Jamaa II project, implemented between 2011 and 2016 in South Kivu Province, aimed to improve household food security and child nutritional status using various intervention strategies, including farmer field school (FFS) programs. To characterize the changes in agricultural production techniques, household food security, and child nutritional status associated with participation in FFS programs. We used a community-matched design to select FFS intervention and control households from 3 health zones in which the project was operating. Data on food security (Household Dietary Diversity Score [HDDS] and Household Food Insecurity Access Scale [HFIAS]) and child anthropometry were collected semiannually for 3.5 years in both groups. Additional data on agricultural practices were collected annually in the FFS group only. Focus groups with FFS staff and beneficiaries were conducted in the final project year. Statistical analyses included basic descriptive statistics such as paired t tests and analysis of covariance; regression models using a bootstrap were applied to generate P values and confidence intervals while accounting for differences between groups. The study enrolled 388 FFS beneficiaries and their households in the intervention group and 324 non-FFS households in the control group. FFS participants reported increasing the number of different agricultural techniques they used by an average of 2.7 techniques over the project period, from 5.1 in 2013 to 7.9 in 2016 (P<.001). The mean HDDS and HFIAS improved more in the FFS group than in the control group (mean difference between intervention and control for HDDS was 0.9 points and for HFIAS was -4.6 points; P<.001). However, the prevalence of child stunting (60.2% intervention vs. 58.8% control) and underweight (22.3% intervention vs. 29.8% control) were similar in both groups at endline (P>.05). Although FFS participants diversified their agricultural production strategies and experienced improvements in household food security, there was not a positive impact on child nutritional status. In this food-insecure context, improvements in agricultural production alone are unlikely to significantly change child nutritional status-a health outcome with a complex, multilevel causal chain.

Assessing the role of farmer field schools in promoting pro-adaptive behaviour towards climate change among Jamaican farmers

With the vulnerability of Jamaica’s agricultural sector to climate change being well established, there is a compelling need to incorporate useful adaptation strategies. One such pro-adaptation strategy is the farmer field school (FFS) which is currently being used to promote climate-smart agricultural practices among Jamaican farmers through a number of social learning and capacity building initiatives. A hallmark of the field school methodology is its promotion of adaptation by empowering farmers to plan for and cope with the effects of climate change by improving knowledge, awareness and adoption of best practices, while providing a viable income stream to participants. Though the FFS program has been touted as a huge success, with several community groups sustaining their income diversification and adaptation efforts even after the formal project has ended, the extent of participation in these field schools has however been uneven and limited in numbers. Amidst claims of the program’s achievements to date, and plans to replicate and upscale the field school methodology in Jamaica as a climate adaptation strategy, a comparative assessment of the role participation plays in shaping local farmers’ cognitive and behavioural responses towards climate change is very timely. The case study reported in this paper is informed by a comparative mixed methods approach, undertaken in three communities in northern Clarendon, Jamaica. The study assesses the particular ways that participation in the farmer field school program has influenced the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of FFS trainees about climate change compared to their non-FFS counterparts. Preliminary results indicate that FFS participants perceive themselves as having a higher adaptive capacity in comparison to non-field school participants, amidst both groups having access to similar stocks of assets. Ultimately, our results highlight that cognitive factors (e.g. perceptions of adaptive capacity) and involvement in social networks may be as important as the more commonly researched asset-based indicators in shaping individual adaptive behaviour.