Farmer Field Schools Research Articles

Participatory versus traditional agricultural advisory models for training farmers in conservation agriculture: a comparative analysis from Kenya

ABSTRACT Purpose We investigated the variation between participatory and traditional agricultural advisory models in training farmers on Conservation Agriculture in Kenya in order to understand how these models influenced farmer uptake of practices, development of social networks and delivery cost of training. Design/methodology/approach A pre–post-test was applied using panel data from before and after participants took part in Conservation Agriculture training. Data on the assessment criteria were collected, and key informant interviews, personal observation and training reports added context to the findings. Data analysis included logistic regression and social network analysis. Findings All advisory models built social networks, enhancing information diffusion, but at different levels. Of the participatory models, Landcare, exhibited greater farmer uptake of Conservation Agriculture and more developed social networks, while the participatory Farmer Field School model performance was similar to the traditional advisory model. Both participatory models were more expensive to deliver than the traditional model. Practical implications Agricultural advisory services should be delivered through a collaborative and pluralistic advisory system and include participatory needs identification and explicit social capital building strategies, with advisory agents’ capacity to deliver these strategies enhanced. Opportunities for strategic cost-saving measures should be sought. Theoretical implications Findings from this study partly agree with the literature that participatory models enhance the adoption of complex agricultural practices compared with traditional models. Originality Benefits of participatory models are outlined extensively in the literature; however, understanding the variable implementation of these models, and how they perform compared to traditional models, has not been sufficiently studied.

Farmer-plant-breeders and the law on Java, Indonesia

ABSTRACT In the last two decades, some Javanese rice farmers have learned to be plant breeders with the help of Farmer Field Schools for Participatory Plant Breeding. However, they have experienced problems with seed and intellectual property laws primarily focused on the strengthening of the seed industry and compliance with development plans. A number of farmers have been prosecuted for experimenting with seeds, prompting a partly successful challenge to relevant provisions in Indonesia’s Constitutional Court. Subsequent legislative changes have restored some farmers’ rights, but also brought new reporting requirements and limitations. Using James Scott’s concept of “transformative state simplifications,” this article shows that legal challenges to regulations are just one strategy of self-help. The political reform process and possibility for constitutional challenges have opened up space for debates about how farmers can benefit from laws that seek to regulate their cultivars. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and other developments are likely to intensify discussions about what precisely various laws mean by their encouragement of “small farmer varieties,” “food sovereignty,” and a “sustainable agricultural cultivation system.”

Modified listening group method as a knowledge-sharing and learning mechanism in agricultural communities in the Philippines

ABSTRACT Purpose: The aim of this study is to explore if the modified listening group method that originated in Canada can enhance learning and sharing amongst farmers in a group learning setup. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study, participated in by 111 rice farmers, was conducted in Farmer Field School sites of PhilRice in the provinces of Agusan Del Sur, Bohol, Ilocos Norte, Negros Occidental, and Tarlac. It employed a quasi-experimental research design. Findings: Overall, we found that the modified listening group method enables learning of technical concepts and provides avenues for farmers to collectively forward their agenda to the government. Taking on a more critical approach, however, and moving this research forward, we argue that there is a need to scrutinise the types of knowledge shared and muted during the course of exchanges amongst farmers. Several questions relating to power relations in knowledge-sharing are advanced in this research. Theoretical Implications: This paper contributes to addressing the dearth of studies from developing countries on the use of listening groups in agricultural extension. Practical Implications: The study explores and offers a cost-effective strategy to enhance learning and sharing in a group learning setup amongst farmers. Originality/Value: The study explored how an old advisory method like the listening groups may be revived and modified to facilitate learning in a group learning setup.

Organic farm waste management in degraded banana-coffee-based farming systems in NW Tanzania

This study examines how smallholder farmers operate degraded banana-coffee-based farming systems and apply organic farm waste. We surveyed 150 farm households in two districts of the Kagera region in north-west Tanzania (Karagwe and Kyerwa districts). An expert-based typology revealed three groups of farm households that differ in biomass production (high, moderate, low). Households producing high amounts of biomass have integrated a sophisticated farm waste management system, but do not exploit the full potential of organic farm waste as a soil fertiliser and conditioner. The integration of farm waste management decreases in farm households with medium and low biomass production. None of the households is food secure, as they experience seasonality in food production and lack food storage technologies. In farm households with high and medium biomass production, the optimised use of organic farm waste could potentially lead to food security if food storage capacities were also improved. However, farm households with low biomass production will not become food secure with the introduction of organic farm waste management alone, as the land size is too small, and the socio-economic basis for it is lacking. Limited labour remains a major restriction to improving farm waste management. In the future, the safe use of human excreta needs to be fostered in engineering and research, holistic material flow analyses integrating (low-tech) agricultural solutions and concepts investigated, e.g., biochar production, safe use of mineral fertiliser and climate-smart agriculture, and the socio-economic status of female-headed households strengthened, e.g., in farmer field schools and governmental programmes.

Social and Cultural Factors Influencing Gender Disparity in Farmers Field Schools Approach among Smallholder Farmers in Kilifi North Sub-County, Kilifi County

The status of women in agriculture has received extensive attention in literature in the recent decades, however, a research gap persists regarding the state of gender disparity in Farmers Field Schools (FFS) in Kilifi South Sub-County. The study of gender disparity in FFS, an experiential learning approach whose outcome is to empower both men and women farmers with agricultural technologies is fundamental. Five FDGs comprising of a total of 75 participants were drawn from five FFS purposively selected for the study. Data were collected qualitatively through Focus Group Discussion and analyzed using Content Analysis. The results reveal that over 90% group members in FFS are women. Women are the mangers of productive resources and custodians of household food stores. The less than 10% men are due to the socio-cultural norms that dictate that as household heads, they should engage in activities for immediate household monetary needs. Men find FFS approach inclined more to farming, an activity considered to be women's primary obligation and engaging in it will compromise their status as household heads. These findings imply that FFS provides a conducive environment for farmer empowerment through experiential learning on new agricultural technologies for increased agricultural productivity for food security. However, gender disparity caused by social and cultural norms and values impede its achievement. Development agencies should hold education fora to sensitize communities that achieving food security is a mirage without joint synergies from both women and men.

Assessment of smallholder farmers’ awareness of bean fly (Ophiomyia spp.) and management practices in central and northern Malawi: Implications for resistance breeding

The production of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in East and Southern Africa (ESA) regions falls short of the demand partly due to insect pests and diseases, and a lack of high yielding varieties. Bean fly (Ophiomyia spp.) is one of the most devastating field insect pests of common bean in ESA and the development of host plant resistance to bean fly is an important strategy to combat yield losses caused by this insect pest. A survey involving 195 farmers in Kalira, Chipuka, Champhira and Luwerezi Agricultural Extension Planning Area (EPAs) in Malawi was conducted to assess their awareness of bean fly and their varietal selection criteria. Only 45% of the respondent farmers were aware of the bean fly pest and practiced integrated insect pest management strategies that included the use of chemical and botanical insecticides, and cultural control methods. The level of education, previous bean fly experience and farmer's location significantly (P < 0.001) influenced their awareness of bean fly. Principal component analysis identified disease resistance (with a loading score of (0.87), grain yield (0.34), insect pest resistance (0.35), early maturity (0.48) and cooking time (0.14) as the most important traits that influence farmers' varietal choice. Implementation of strategies such as farmer field schools and on farm field trials relating to bean fly and also introduction of adult literacy learning centers will promote awareness of bean fly. Therefore, common bean breeding programs should integrate and prioritize selection for these traits in varietal design for successful adoption of new cultivars among farmers in these and similar ecologies.

Farmer field school : An approach beyond technology transfer

Farmer field school is an innovative extension approach, emerged in rice crop and gradually diversified to vegetables, cotton, livestock and other crops. FFS originated from Indonesia, is presently being conducted in many countries with local adaptations and institutionalization. FFS is a groupbased learning process that includes hands-on training methods, carried out through field observations, agro-ecosystem analysis at subgroup level, agro-ecosystem analysis at school level and special topics. Participants of farmer field schools are made to learn through direct real-life experiences to maximize retention of farm information. During the period 1994-2013, total 14,617 FFS were organized to train 58,422 agricultural extension officers and 4,39,508 farmers in the country. Evaluation studies reported that the FFS approach has empowered farmers in knowledge acquisition, analytical skills, critical thinking, problem-solving skills and reflecting an increase in yield, reduction in pesticide use and farm-level returns. Sustained diffusion from field school graduates to neighboring farmers still lacks convincing evidences. Effective FFS essentially require backstopping by experienced facilitators, appropriate fund release mechanism, proper logistics, regular monitoring and participation of farmers.

Agricultural Extension Agents' Use of Learning-Based Extension Methods in Trinidad and Tobago

Abstract: Agricultural extension agents are highly credited for their roles of providing advice to farmers and supporting their learning and decision-making to improve livelihoods. The use of appropriate methods to promote learning in developing countries, including Trinidad and Tobago, has often been highlighted as a development priority. Nevertheless, agricultural extension agents encounter difficulties in applying new competencies. Understanding and utilising appropriate methods based on farmers’ learning needs is critical. This study sought to investigate extension agents’ use of learning-based extension methods. A survey was conducted with 106 extension agents. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis were used to analyse data. The findings show that male agents prefer Plant Clinics and Farmer Field School learning methods. Social influence and networking among organisations had a significant influence on the use of Discovery Based Learning methods. The positive influence of social pressure motivated the agents. The study recommends supporting facilitative conditions through a coordinated programme and to focus on farmers’ learning as a critical consideration for improving the use and impact of learning-based methods&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: Learning-based methods, agricultural extension, extension agent, Trinidad and Tobago

Management of Cocoa Black Pod Disease by Farmers in Edo State, Nigeria: The Role of Farmer Field School

The specific objectives of the study were to find the contribution of FFS training in control of the disease; examine the role of FFS in improving farmers’ competency in management of black pod disease, and determine the proportion of farmers that benefited from FFS training on management of black pod disease. A multi-stage sampling procedure was employed in selecting 76 FFS farmers and 74 other farmers, and various descriptive statistics and t-tests were used to analyze data. The results showed that FFS played a major role in improving FFS farmers’ competency in the management of black pod disease. The t-tests conducted showed significant differences in knowledge between FFS farmers and other farmers.

How does farmers' field schooling impact eco-efficiency? Empirical evidence from paddy farmers in Bangladesh

PurposeRecent studies suggest extensive use of environmental resources in agrofarming degrades ecosystem significantly. In this backdrop, this study aims at assessing ecoefficiency of paddy farming. Because ecoefficiency links up between economic performances and environmental resources supporting the provision of goods and services for the society, this study further investigates the effectiveness of attending Farmers' Field School (FFS), an agroenvironmental program, in conserving environmental resources through improving farm-level ecoefficiency.Design/methodology/approachIn a dataset of 200 randomly selected paddy farmers from three districts of the southwestern Bangladesh, data envelopment analysis (DEA) is applied to compute both radial and pressure-specific (nutrient balance, energy balance, irrigation and pesticide lethal risk) ecoefficiency scores. Furthermore, propensity score matching (PSM) technique is applied to examine the impact of FFS program on farm-level ecoefficiency.FindingsThe DEA results suggest that paddy farmers are highly eco-inefficient. The computed radial eco-efficiency score is 0.40 implying farmers could reduce around 60% of environmental pressure equiproportionally even by maintaining the same level of value addition. In addition, the PSM results suggest farmers' participation in FFS program led to around 22.5% higher radial ecoefficiency and 7–25% higher environmental pressure-specific eco-efficiencies. Furthermore, simulation exercises reveal that FFS participation in interaction with farm size would lead to around 32–40% reduction of all environmental pressures.Practical implicationsPromoting FFS programs among paddy farmers could be an effective policy option to improve eco-efficiency through environment-friendly farming paradigm.Originality/valueThis study is probably the maiden effort that has examined the impact of attending the FFS program on ecoefficiency improvement in Bangladesh. This study contributes to both the concern literature by adding useful information and the policymakers by providing new insights about the reduction of environmental resource usage with maintaining the same value addition from agrofarming.

Institutional perspective for doubling fish farmers’ income: A case study

Doubling farmers’ income (DFI) by 2022 has been set as a target for Agriculture sector of India. Extensive deliberations have been made on application and adoption of technologies/packages as key forces to reach the target. The responsibility is with numerous stakeholders and the specific role of Research and Development (R&amp;D) institutions in doubling farmers’ income has not been touched upon. As agriculture and allied sectors like aquaculture is a state subject, greater linkages have to be established by R&amp;D institutions to achieve the target. The present study analysed the role of R&amp;D institution in doubling farmers’ income, keeping technology as an effective tool, based on a case study of ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (ICAR-CIFA), Bhubaneswar and Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)-Khordha in Odisha State, India. The results of the study delineated the ways and means for ICAR-CIFA and KVK, Khordha to achieve the target of doubling farmers’ income by developing models with existing proven technology, upscaling proven extension approaches like Farmers Field Schools (FFS) replicated as Aquaculture Field Schools (AFS), best practices to be adopted and rationalising farm innovations.

English

This study determined policy initiatives for improving the contributions of university agricultural education and extension institutions to environmental and sustainable development (ESD) in agriculture. The study was carried out in Cross River State. Survey research design was adopted for the study. The population for the study of 534, comprising 195 registered farmers who have continuously participated in ADP farmer field school training from the State; 70 graduate extension personnel; 167 final year agriculture students and 102 lecturers. Agricultural education programme in the Universities in Cross River State was used for the study. The study adopted a triangulation technique involving mixed methods of data collection. Both instruments were face validated by three experts in the field of agriculture with a reliability coefficient of 0.83 obtained through Cronbach alpha reliability method. Data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and independent t-test statistic. The study identified (17) policy initiatives that could improve the contributions of agricultural education and extension institutions to ESD in agriculture in Cross River State. It was recommended among others that the identified policy initiatives should be integrated into university agricultural education and extension institutions and properly implemented. Key words: Policy, initiatives, improvement, agricultural education, environmental and sustainable development.

Perspective: enhancing economic evaluations and impacts of integrated pest management Farmer Field Schools (IPM-FFS) in low-income countries.

Over the last few decades, the use of Farmer Field Schools (FFS) have been considered one of the best approaches to disseminate integrated pest management (IPM) practices that aim to reduce reliance on and misuse of chemical pest control methods in agriculture. However, the published empirical literature has been decidedly mixed in terms of the effectiveness of the IPM-FFS approach to improve economic outcomes in the short-term (e.g. reduce chemical use, improve profits), and the potential for scaling-up and IPM dissemination in the medium-term. This article briefly explores the empirical IPM-FFS literature and draws implications for future research directions that can potentially enhance IPM knowledge diffusion methods (including IPM-FFS) and increase the economic impact of IPM techniques in low-income countries. We find that promising research directions to improve understanding of IPM dissemination and IPM impacts will need to involve: (i) interdisciplinary long-run studies using rigorous evaluation methods; (ii) in-depth assessments of spillover effects; (iii) careful examination of IPM and IPM-FFS impact heterogeneity; (iv) evaluation of novel IPM packages with herbicide- and genetics-centered components; (v) piloting and impact assessments of alternative IPM knowledge diffusion structures; and (vi) piloting and impact analysis of IPM dissemination and learning programs with private sector involvement. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Is the farmer field school still relevant? Case studies from Malawi and Indonesia

The capacity of farmers to adapt to changing environments is critical for sustainable, economically viable and resilient rural development. The Farmer Field School (FFS) was developed by FAO in the late 1980s to build farmers’ knowledge and skills for adaptive management. The FFS was subsequently implemented in over 90 countries by a multitude of stakeholders. We conducted case studies in Malawi and Indonesia to answer contemporary questions about the FFS, regarding its relevance at field level, its position in the institutional environment, and its contribution to rural development. We show that the FFS remains relevant at field level, helping farmers to adapt their agricultural practices and livelihood situation to changing circumstances. Differences in institutional arrangements between the two countries highlight the importance of a coordinated support for the FFS. Long-term impacts were found at farmer and institutional level. This study provides insight into the FFS, regarding the causal factors of change, institutional factors, and the role in continued development. As an approach that empowers rural people, the FFS thus contributes to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.

Farmer field schools and the co-creation of knowledge and innovation: the mediating role of social capital

Research has repeatedly confirmed that farmer field schools (FFS) can serve as a bridge between science and farm practice, enhancing simultaneously rural social energy. However, even though social capital is a burgeoning topic in FFS research, it is not clear whether and how it mediates FFS performance. In this mixed-methods study, using data from two FFS projects conducted in Greece, we examined if social capital among trainees facilitates the co-creation of knowledge and the co-development of agricultural innovations by farmers. A thematic analysis was performed to analyse qualitative data, whereas regression models were employed for the quantitative strand of analysis. Results revealed that social capital evolves progressively during FFS, enabling the achievement of the project’s aims by enhancing in-group communication, establishing affective ties, instilling a sense of community, and triggering motivational contagion among participants. Statistical analyses confirmed that the “softest” sides of social capital (bonding and connection) significantly contribute to knowledge and innovation co-production. Although this work was based on data derived only from two FFS projects that took place in Greece, our findings underline the importance of social capital for the success of any FFS project and emphasise the need for identifying routes to nurture social capital within FFS.

An Estimation of Technical Efficiency of Red Chili Pepper’s Growers in Central Bangka

In Central Bangka, The red chili pepper’s productivity is still considered at low level. It is corroborated from comparison between the productivity of red chili pepper which is computed as 35.6 quintal per hectare while the potential productivity of the genetics of red chili pepper is 200-220 quintal per hectare. It is presumed that the productivity of red chili pepper is technically inefficient. The aim of the study is to analyze factors that affect the production of red chili pepper and the technical inefficiency. The study also determines the level of technical efficiency of red chili pepper on smallholders who participate in the agriculture productivity improvement program in Central Bangka Regency. Survey was carried out to collect the data with purposive sampling method. The criteria of respondents were those red chili pepper smallholders who had involved with the agriculture productivity improvement program. The total sampled respondents were 43 smallholders. Stochastic frontier analysis with the Maximum Likelihood Estimate was used to analyze the data. The study discovered the factors that affect the production of red chili pepper were labor, potassium fertilizer, insecticide, and fungicide. Furthermore, the productivity of red chili pepper was considered as technically inefficient which was shown from the average score of technical efficient, 0.54. Finally, the study revealed that side job became factor that could increase the technical inefficiency of red chili pepper farming activity while the frequency of attending the empowerment program and farmer field school were otherwise.

Factors Affecting Respondents’ Participation in Farmers Field Schools in Khartoum State, Sudan

This study was conducted to determine the socioeconomic factors influencing farmer participation in the Farmer Field Schools (FFS) program in Bahari Locality of Kharoum State, Sudan. Eighty farmers were selected randomly and interviewed for this study where Frequency distribution and multiple regressions were used to analyze the data. The study findings indicate that more than 95.0% of respondents were economically active, 88.7% had formal education, 83.0% managed their own farm and 86.3% were currently married. Multiple regressions revealed that the level of participation in FFS was significantly associated with education, farm ownership, farm size, and the period of residency. In addition, the data showed that the level of application of received agricultural innovations was significantly associated with education level, farm ownership, farm size, and total income. The study recommended some interventions to improve and develop the practices and approach of the FFS approach.

Research-development partnerships for scaling complex innovation: Lessons from the Farmer Business School in IFAD-supported loan-grant collaborations in Asia

The Farmer Business School (FBS) is a participatory, action learning process focused on product and business development, and like the Farmer Field School, is a complex, multi-dimensional innovation with the potential to benefit large numbers of farming households economically, socially and institutionally. Scaling this approach requires rethinking both innovation and scaling. The paper draws on the insights of recent research which argues that a systems approach to innovation can better address the complexity of scaling processes and provides frameworks that link together processes of innovation and scaling. In examining these frameworks, the paper identifies the key role of partnership dynamics in those processes. Drawing on both the innovation and scaling literature and literature on partnership dynamics, a conceptual framework is developed to analyze how partnership dynamics contribute to and constrain the transition from small-scale ‘niche’ innovation testing led by researchers, to large scale integration of the approach by development partners in agricultural ‘regimes’. Using case studies involving partnerships between a small international agricultural research grant recipient and six large development projects supported by IFAD multilateral loans and managed by government agencies undertaken in four Asian countries between 2011 and 2018, the study analyses the variable dynamics of the partnerships from initial networking to integrated collaboration, in the process of scaling the FBS innovation. Responding to the main research question about the drivers of partnership dynamics that contribute to scaling, the paper examines the partnerships in terms of six drivers which derived both from the literature and also from the empirical evidence presented in the study. The drivers include two dimensions of “fit”, one about the convergence of research expertise and development demand, the other about the systematic integration of the innovation with different elements of the development actions. Other drivers relate to the issue of the convergence of project cycles, the stability of staffing in partner organizations, internal decision-making processes and the dimension of “partnering” – the value-based and behavioral aspects of collaboration. The paper also discusses the results of a “partnership health check-up” process conducted periodically during the partnerships and reconsiders the driver about system fit to understand the extent to which there had been a transformation in the conventional ‘regime’ approach to innovations and scaling. Finally, the paper proposes to adjust the conceptual framework based on the analysis of these partnerships for scaling innovations.

Will teaching sustainability standards to oil palm smallholders in Indonesia pay off?

ABSTRACT This study presents an ex-ante cost-benefit analysis of introducing sustainability standards to smallholder oil palm farmers in the province of Jambi, Sumatra, Indonesia. Sustainability standards are defined as a set of oil palm management practices derived from the Indonesia Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) scheme. Economic and environmental benefits of ISPO are derived from a panel data set from some 185 oil palm smallholders collected in 2010, 2012 and 2013. We explore two basic strategies for the introduction of ISPO namely: (1) a conventional extension campaign and (2) a farmer field school approach. Our calculations show that the farmer field school approach results in a higher economic rate of return compared to conventional agricultural extension campaigns. A major conclusion from this analysis is that the Government of Indonesia should invest if ISPO standards are to be adopted on a large scale by smallholder farmers.

Building new phase of IPM in Indonesia

A milestone on plant protection in Indonesia was marked by establishment of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) since 1986 through Presidential decree Inpres no. 3 th. 1986. Moreover, IPM was implemented and has made a fundamental change in plant protection institution, farmer’s capacity and agricultural practices, and consequently rice pest’s problems. Furthermore, IPM was also implemented in horticulture and estate crops. During 33 years-historical journey of IPM, socio-political situation, global environmental problems and issues, science and technology has dynamically changed which affect IPM implementation. The paper categorized IPM development in Indonesia into three phases; emergence-growth, stationary and survival, and new phase of IPM. Every period has specific characteristics on: pest problems, science and technology, national and global environmental issues, human resources, role of plant protection institutions and mode of dissemination. A new phase of IPM is needed to make a strong and resilience plant protection system, therefore able to face and manage more complex problems plant pests, diseases under change of climate in the coming years, to secure food and agricultural productivity and sustainability. New phase of IPM absolutely need farmers field school, and enrichment of technology and approach including agro-ecology and landscape approach, biotechnology, information technology (IT), remote sensing and biosensor technology.