Farm Animal Welfare Research Articles

A Successful Case of Implementation of Farm Animal Welfare Audits by Large Meat Buyers

Abstract For many years, the supply chain managers of large supermarkets and restaurant corporations have been conducting animal welfare audits of farms and slaughter plants. Some programs have been more effective than others. This case history describes the early implementation of a highly effective program for auditing animal welfare in slaughter plants. The lessons learned from the implementation of this program in 1999 are still relevant today. There were four major factors that made this welfare auditing program effective. They were: (1) corporate management became motivated to improve conditions in the slaughter plants after they visited plants that had severe animal welfare problems, (2) the welfare standards used to audit the beef and pork plants were simple and easy to understand. They provided clear guidance on conditions that would result in a failed audit, (3) more than one commercial company enforced the same standards at the numerous slaughter plants, and (4) there was an emphasis on repairing existing facilities and improving management instead of buying lots of expensive new equipment. There were only 3 plants out of 75 where expensive renovations were required. This case history will also discuss how veterinarians and management consultants can help food animal supply chain managers implement effective programs that will improve animal welfare. Practical commercial animal welfare assessments will need to be simpler than assessments used for research. Information © The Author 2023

Research progress on animal environment and welfare

AbstractAnimal welfare closely depends on its ability to adapt and thrive in a harmonious relationship with its environment, ensuring both physical and psychological well‐being. Over the years, the welfare of farm animals has gathered global attention and has become increasingly important to the general public and scientific communities. The connection between the environment and animal welfare is primarily established through the provision of suitable and controllable environment for animals. However, it is essential to recognize that the impact of environment extends beyond merely ensuring freedom from discomfort. The environment plays a crucial role in shaping an animal's response to challenges such as disease, stress, and pathogen. While animals may be housed in controlled environments that provide optimal conditions for health, production, and welfare, it is important to acknowledge that specific scenarios can significantly affect and alter the environmental requirements. Even with access to fresh air, certain factors can have a substantial impact on the well‐being of animals. Furthermore, providing appropriate environmental conditions goes beyond meeting basic needs and can greatly contribute to allowing animals to engage in their natural behaviors. It serves as a relevant tool for ensuring and maintaining adequate welfare standards. This review takes a comprehensive approach to environmental welfare by considering the welfare of animals managed in different stocking systems, considering environmental stress, stocking systems, and the provision of environmental enrichment items. By examining these factors, a broader understanding of the relationship between environment and welfare is achieved and recommendations for future research are outlined.

Temperature–humidity index monitoring during two summer seasons in dairy cow sheds in Mugello (Tuscany)

Many studies have reported that the impact of high temperatures affects physiology, welfare, health, and productivity of farm animals, and among these, the dairy cattle farming is one of the livestock sectors that suffers the greatest effects. The temperature–humidity index (THI) represents the state of the art in the evaluation of heat stress conditions in dairy cattle but often its measurement is not carried out in sheds. For this reason, the aim of this study was the monitoring of the THI in three dairy cattle farms in Mugello (Tuscany) to understand its influence on dairy cows. THI values were calculated using meteorological data from direct observation in sheds and outdoor environments. Data relating to the animal’s behavior were collected using radio collars. The Pearson test and Mann–Kendall test were used for statistical analysis. The results highlighted a significant (P < 0.001) upward trend in THImax during the last 30 years both in Low Mugello (+ 1.1 every 10 years) and in High Mugello (+ 0.9 every 10 years). In Low Mugello sheds, during the period 2020–2022, more than 70% of daytime hours during the summer period were characterized by heat risk conditions (THI > 72) for livestock. On average the animals showed a significant (P < 0.001) decrease in time spent to feeding and rumination, both during the day and the night, with a significant (P < 0.001) increase in inactivity. This study fits into the growing demand for knowledge of the micro-climatic conditions within farms in order to support resilience actions for protecting both animal welfare and farm productivity from the effects of climate change. This could also be carried out thanks to estimation models which, based on the meteorological conditions forecast, could implement the thermal stress indicator (THI) directly from the high-resolution meteorological model, allowing to get a prediction of the farm’s potential productivity loss based on the expected THI.

Development of a benchmarking tool to assess the welfare of dairy cattle on small-scale farms

Public concern about the welfare of farm animals and the livestock industry's awareness of the need to improve animal welfare have led to the implementation of new tools designed to meet this objective. Especially in the case of small-scale farms in marginalized areas, the lack of available data specifically for assessing welfare led to the present study. Its aim was to use animal- and resource-based indicators that are representative of small-scale farms, to establish an index and develop a benchmarking tool that can be used to dynamically evaluate the welfare of cattle on farms with different husbandry systems and provide farmers, veterinarians, extension officers, and stakeholders with reliable information that can be used as a decision support tool. For this reason, 1,891 cows from 204 herds housed in freestall (n = 111) and tiestall (n = 93) husbandry systems in South Tyrol (Northern Italy) were evaluated. The results showed that 17.6% of herds (36 farms) had an average score below 60 (out of 100), which means that immediate intervention should be adopted to improve welfare. South Tyrolean dairy farms performed well in terms of lameness, skin alterations, avoidance behavior, number and space of lying areas, and dystocia occurrence scores, whereas water supply, cow cleanliness status, claw conformation, and getting-up behavior offered significant potential for improvement. Significant differences were observed between housing systems scoring less than 60 out of 100 points in 9.9% (n = 11) and 26.9%, (n = 25), of the herds kept in freestalls and tiestalls, respectively. A slight difference was found when comparing the percentage of herds with high scores, which corresponded to 30.6% (n = 34) of herds housed in freestalls and 22.6% (n = 21) of herds housed in tiestall housing systems. In addition, it was shown that animals reared on farms with tiestalls more often had problems with body condition, cleanliness, and skin alterations. All individual welfare indicators in the top 25% of herds had scores above 80, indicating that this may be an attainable target for freestall and tiestall herds, respectively, to promote good dairy cow welfare. The overall aim must be to adopt measures to increase the scores on all farms closer to this level.

Haematological parameters of laying hens under different group size.

The relevance of this study lies in its potential implications for poultry farming practices and animal welfare. Understanding the impact of group size on the blood parameters of hens can provide valuable insights for optimising their health and well-being in farming environments. The aim of the study was an analysis of haematological parameters of laying hens under the influence group size with the same stoking density in analogous cages by design. Hens were kept for 34 weeks in cages of multilevel batteries at different group sizes: I group-93 birds, II group-52 birds, III group-17 birds and IV group-9 birds. The study analysed blood samples from laying hens at 18 and 52 weeks of age. Results showed that reducing the group size from 93 to 52 birds led to a haematological status within the physiological norm, characterized by increased heterophils and decreased monocyte levels. Whereas, the decrease in group size to 17 birds was accompanied by a decrease in the hens' blood content of thrombocytes, an increase of heterophile, a decrease of monocytes and lymphocytes within the physiological norm, as well as an increase in the heterophiles to lymphocytes ratio.

Emerging technologies in dairy medicine

Technology is often adopted in dairy farming for one – or many – of the following reasons: to increase farm efficiency, improve farm profitability, assist in decision-making, improve ani­mal welfare and, in some cases, increase producer happiness. As the use of technologies increases in dairy farming, dairy practitioners, who are regarded as the most reliable source of information by producers, must learn about the innovations available in the market in order to assist dairy producers when adopting these emerging technologies. More importantly, dairy producers and practitioners should leverage the large amount of data generated by these innovations to develop management actions to improve animal health, performance and welfare. This review focuses on presenting some of the emerging tech­nologies used for the management and monitoring of lactating dairy cows, and how these technologies can be used by dairy practitioners to add value to the services they offer while in­creasing farm efficiency and animal welfare.

A survey on management practices and attitudes of broiler buy-back farmers towards farm animal welfare in Gampaha district, Sri Lanka: a case study of a commercial broiler chicken processing company

Contract grower/buy-back farming system is well established in the present poultry industry in Sri Lanka. This study assessed farmer profile, key management practices and attitudes of the buy-back farmers towards broiler chicken welfare. A total of 40 buy-back farmers in Gampaha District, Sri Lanka were interviewed via telephone conversations using an open structured type questionnaire. Data were statistically analyzed using SPSS version 23.0. Relationships among variables were computed by Ordinal Logistic Regression. Majority (56%) of the farmers were in between the age group of 35-50 y, and 17.6% were females. The most popular flock sizes were in between 1000-5000 birds (64.1%). All the farmers stated that they purposely check for sick or injured birds and 97.4% of them practiced isolation of sick birds. However, no one euthanized severely injured or sick birds. All farmers informed that they practice up-right position when catching and handling birds. Half of the farmers (56.4%) were not well aware of concepts of farm animal welfare. Farmers’ attitudes on farm animal welfare, transportation, and slaughtering were compared with farmers’ profile and resulted in no significant relationship. There was a positive relationship that tend to be significant (P = 0.051) with welfare awareness (YES) vs the welfare positive attitudes on handling of birds. When flock size increased, farmers’ awareness of pain of birds was significantly decreased (P&lt;0.05). In conclusion, a considerable number of buy-back farmers had poor or uncertain attitudes regarding broiler chicken welfare, and their management practices were mostly production-focused. It is suggested that poultry welfare awareness programs would be beneficial to improve farmers' positive attitudes to ensure the welfare of broiler chickens.

Measuring the human–animal relationship in cows by avoidance distance at pasture

The human–animal relationship is an essential part of farm animal welfare. Avoidance distance at the feeding rack (ADF) has been validated as a measure of human–animal relationship (HAR) for cows indoors, but no measure has been validated for cows at pasture yet. The aim of this study was to test the validity of ‘avoidance distance at pasture’ (ADP) as a measure of HAR for grazing dairy cows. We assessed the following validity criteria for both ADP and ADF: inter-observer reliability, test–retest reliability, and stability over the grazing season. We also assessed the selectivity of ADP by convergent validity with ADF. Two persons (randomly alternating between the experimenter carrying out the test and the observer watching the test) estimated ADF and ADP twice on 48 dairy cows. During the grazing season, one person measured both ADF and ADP on the 48 cows two days apart for test–retest reliability and 7 times (at 5-week intervals) for stability over the season. For these tests, the experimenter approached the cow from the front, with his hand held at approximately 45°, and the distance between the experimenter's hand and the cow was measured at the moment of the cow's first avoidance movement. The inter-observer reliability, test–retest reliability, and stability over the season of ADF and ADP were analyzed at individual level using both reliability (e.g. Spearman’s rank correlation (RS), Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (KW)), and agreement parameters (e.g. smallest detectable change (SDC)). A linear mixed model was used to investigate the relationship between ADF and ADP. Inter-observer reliability was high (i.e. satisfactory) for ADF and ADP (RS>0.7). SDC was around 55 cm for ADF whereas it was 127 cm for ADP. Test–retest reliability was high for ADF (RS=0.7) and moderate for ADP (RS=0.5). Stability over the season was moderate for both ADF and ADP (0.5<KW<0.6). We found no significant relationship between ADF and ADP. In conclusion, the ADP measure has acceptable inter-observer reliability but is not stable over short-term or long-term time and is not related to ADF. ADP cannot be entirely validated as a measure of HAR at this stage. Further studies are warranted to address factors that make ADP variable with time and to investigate the selectivity of this measure through a construct validity process.

Agreement of farm animal behaviour and welfare studies with the ARRIVE Essential 10

The inclusion of animals in research studies involves a great responsibility to ensure animal welfare within the relevant ethical and legal frameworks. This study aimed to review compliance with the ARRIVE Essential 10 requirements and the ethical oversight of animal behaviour and welfare studies in farm animals. Three journals and a total of 133 articles were reviewed for compliance with the ARRIVE Essential 10 items and criteria. Each article obtained a final score according to whether or not each criterion was met within each item. Likewise, ethical declaration in each article was recorded. Chi-square test and linear models were built to assess associations between the ethical statement presentation and the final ARRIVE Essential 10 score with the country, the species, and the journal. We found that 15% of the articles did not present an ethical statement. The journal with the highest impact factor and the countries of the Global South presented an ethical statement more frequently. Regarding the Essential 10, the item with the lowest agreement score was ‘Blinding’ and the one with the highest agreement was ‘Outcome Measures’. Also, significant differences were found between journals in terms of the Essential 10 score. Essential 10 provides relevant information that allows reviewers and readers to identify possible welfare risks and the validity of the results in animal welfare science publications.

The impact of information about animal husbandry systems on consumers’ choice of meat products in a virtual supermarket

Farm animal welfare has become a frequently discussed issue. However, the consumption of animal-friendly products remains a small part of total meat consumption. This study investigated whether providing consumers with more detailed information about animal husbandry systems could influence their product choices at a virtual supermarket. Participants (N = 124) were randomly assigned to one of three experiment conditions, which differed in terms of the information provided: 1) only animal-welfare label (control condition), 2) animal-welfare label and a positive video describing an organic animal husbandry system (AHS) (positive video condition), and 3) animal-welfare label, a positive video, and a negative video describing a conventional AHS (positive & negative video condition). In all conditions, participants needed to select an ingredient for a curry dish from three presented products, i.e., a conventional chicken breast, an organic chicken breast, and a plant-based meat alternative that looks like chicken meat. The results indicated that participants’ product choices were not significantly different between the three conditions. As shown by eye-tracking data, participants paid little attention to the animal-welfare-related information. Price was the most important information for participants’ purchasing choices. Also, participants’ meat-eating justification (MEJ) strategies were negatively correlated with their choice of products produced with higher animal-welfare standards. These results illustrate that providing more information about animal-welfare or the conditions under which animals are farmed alone is not enough to induce significant changes of consumers’ meat shopping behavior. The price of the products and participants’ MEJ strategies play important roles in consumers’ purchase decisions.

Human-Animal Interactions in Dairy Goats.

It is widely assumed that the quality of human-animal interactions may have a strong impact on animals' living conditions and is fundamental to improving farm animal welfare. This work aims to evaluate the effectiveness of methods for assessing and monitoring the welfare of lactating goats. In particular, attention was paid to the methods regarding the assessment of the human-animal relationship. The experimental protocol included three tests and observations in the milking parlour, namely: avoidance distance in the pen, avoidance distance at the manger, approach test within 2 min and behavioural observations of stockmen and animals during milking. Fourteen dairy goat farms located in the province of Potenza (Southern Italy) with flocks ranging in size from 67 to 450 lactating goats were used. All farms raised the Rossa Mediterranean goat breed. The percentage of goats that permitted themselves to be touched at the manger (mean ± SD: 12.36 ± 9.50) was higher than that found in the pen (9.67 ± 11.86) and within 2 min inside the pen (8.19 ± 13.78). The avoidance distance at the manger (0.63 ± 0.28 m) was shorter than that recorded in the pen (1.19 ± 0.58 m). Avoidance distance at the manger was positively correlated with that in the pen (Spearman correlation test (rs) = 0.607; p < 0.01), as was the percentage of goats touched at the manger and in the pen (rs = 0.647; p < 0.01). Approximately 60% of the stockman interactions observed during milking were neutral, while positive and negative interactions had similar values to each other, approximately 20%. The number of neutral stockman interactions was positively correlated with the percentage of goats moving when approached at a distance >1 m (rs = 0.799; p < 0.001) and was negatively correlated with the animals touched at the manger (rs = -0.607; p < 0.05), in the pen (rs = -0.613; p < 0.05) and within 2 min (rs = -0.669; p < 0.01). As regards the degree of association between the behaviour of the milker and the animals during the milking routine, the percentage of neutral interactions tended to be positively correlated only with the number of kicks performed by the animals (rs = 0.476; p < 0.10). It is concluded that avoidance distance at the manger and in the pen, as for other farm animals, are valid tests to evaluate the human-animal relationship in goats. In addition, avoidance distance at the manger may reliably replace the test performed in the pen.

Comparison of ovine faecal Strongyle egg counts from an accredited laboratory and a rapid, on-site parasite diagnostic system utilising a smartphone app and machine learning

Traditional treatment for gastrointestinal helminths in grazing livestock often involves untargeted, metaphylactic blanket treatment of animals with anthelmintics. As a result, resistance to anthelmintic drugs has become a significant issue for farmers and veterinarians worldwide, impacting farm profitability and animal welfare. Faecal egg counts (FECs) are an important diagnostic test to combat further anthelmintic resistance as they enable practitioners to better distinguish between animals that require treatment and those that do not. FECs are labour-intensive, time-consuming and require trained personnel to process the samples and visually identify the parasite eggs. Consequently, the time between sample collection, transport, analysis, results, and treatment can take days. This study aimed to evaluate a rapid, on-site parasite diagnostic system utilising a smartphone app and machine learning in terms of its capability to provide reliable egg counts while decreasing the turnaround time for results associated with outsourcing the analysis. A total of 105 ovine faecal samples were collected. Each sample was homogenised and split equally between two containers. One container per sample was processed using the on-site, app-based system, the second container was sent to an accredited laboratory. Strongyle egg counts were conducted via video footage of samples by the system’s machine learning (ML) and a trained technician (MT) and via microscopic examination by an independent laboratory technician (LAB). Results were statistically analysed using a generalised linear model using SAS® (Version 9.4) software. The ratio of means was used to determine non-inferiority of the ML results compared to the LAB results. Both system egg counts (ML and MT) were higher (p < 0.0001) compared to those obtained from the laboratory (LAB). There was no statistically significant difference between the ML and MT counts. The app-based system utilising machine learning has been found to be non-inferior to the accredited laboratory at quantifying Strongyle eggs in ovine faecal samples. With its quick result turnaround, low outlay cost and reusable components, this portable diagnostic system can help veterinarians to increase their testing capacity, perform on-farm testing and deliver faster and more targeted parasite treatment to combat anthelmintic resistance.

Innovative Use of Olive, Winery and Cheese Waste By-Products as Novel Ingredients in Weaned Pigs Nutrition.

New sustainable sources of feeds, which can enhance the health and welfare of farm animals, lower feeding costs, and lead to safer products, are of high priority in modern animal production systems. In the present study, a novel silage created from Greek olive, winery, and feta cheese waste by-products, was evaluated as a feed ingredient at different inclusion rates (0%, 5% or 10%) in 34-day-old weaned pigs. The potential beneficial effects on performance, health and intestinal digesta microflora balance of the pigs were evaluated. Additionally, chemical, microbiological and quality analysis of the meat was carried out. Results showed no detrimental effects (p > 0.05) on the pigs' performance and no significant changes (p > 0.05) in meat pH, color and chemical analysis. Ileum and cecum microflora populations (total anaerobes, Lactobacillaceae) were positively affected (p ≤ 0.05) by the dietary usage of the silage. The microbial populations (Clostridium spp.) of belly meat cuts were positively modified (p ≤ 0.01). The concentration of total phenols in the meat cuts were increased (p ≤ 0.05) and their resistance to oxidation was improved (p ≤ 0.05). In addition, the fatty acid profile of the meat lipids (polyunsaturated and n-3 fatty acids) was positively modified (p ≤ 0.001).

Christianity and Farmed Animal Welfare

The Christian Ethics of Farmed Animal Welfare project is an interdisciplinary engagement between Christian ethics and veterinary animal welfare science, with major UK churches and other organisations as partners. This article gives an account of the project and summarises its findings. The project concludes that Christians have reason to be concerned about farmed animal welfare, and that current animal welfare science provides good evidence concerning what particular species of farmed animals need to flourish. The project assesses current UK certification schemes in relation to the opportunities they offer for farmed animal flourishing. The project recommends that churches and other Christian organisations consume fewer, but higher welfare, animal products and avoid sourcing animal products from systems offering poor opportunities for flourishing.

Identifying housing and management factors associated with lameness in small-scaled mountain dairy farms with different housing systems

The aim of this study was to identify farm-level factors associated with the prevalence of lameness in dairy cows kept in small scale mountain dairy farms. The study population included 1 891 dairy cows (1 069 cows housed in the free stalls and 822 in tie stalls) reared on 204 farms (111 free stalls and 93 tie stalls) in the Alpine region of South Tyrol (Northern Italy). The prevalence of animals showing moderate lameness or severe lameness in tie stalls was 7.8% and 13.9% and for animals housed in free stalls was 5.7% and 11.3%, respectively. A higher prevalence of moderate lameness in free stalls was associated with the use of sawdust bedding (odds ratio (OR) = 2.92; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.73–3.89) compared to sand bedding and a lower prevalence with herd size (OR = 0.61; CI = 0.42–0.99, for a 5-cow increase), access to pasture (OR = 0.88; CI = 0.65–0.97) and lime-straw-water bedding (OR =0.63; CI = 0.56–0.89). A higher prevalence of severe lameness in free stalls was associated with the use of wood plates as lying area surface (OR = 2.33; CI = 2.11–2.61) and a lower with the use of rubber mats (OR = 0.22; CI = 0.14–0.46), sand bedding (OR = 0.54; CI =0.41–0.91) and herd size (OR = 0.38; CI = 0.27–0.77, for a 15-cow increase). Furthermore, the results in tie stall farms revealed that a higher prevalence of moderate lameness was associated with the use of sawdust bedding (OR = 1.99; CI) = 1.4–2.66) and herd size (OR = 1.96; CI = 1.41–2.51, for a 5-cow increase), and a lower prevalence with access to pasture (OR = 0.29; CI = 0.22–0.5), increased lying area dimension (OR =0.67; CI = 0.44–0.89) and lime-straw-water bedding (OR=0.22; CI=0.11–0.74). A higher prevalence of severe lameness in tie stalls was associated with the use of wood plates as lying area surface (OR = 3.19; CI = 2.66–4.15) and herd size (OR = 2.14; CI = 1.97–2.87, for a 5-cow increase), and a lower prevalence was associated with the use of rubber mats (OR = 0.37; CI = 0.19–0.61), sand bedding (OR = 0.53; CI = 0.21–0.82) and increased lying area dimension (OR = 0.77; CI = 0.55–0.99). In conclusion, the present findings should provide important insights into housing and management practices relevant to subsequent causal cow-level studies of animal health and welfare in small-scale mountain dairy farms.

Early life behavior and disease dynamics of pair-housed Holstein heifer calves

Although social housing has been associated with improved welfare in farm animals, little is documented about the early life behavior or the disease dynamics of pair-housed calves. Our objective was to describe and analyze the behavior of pair-housed calves from day 1–10 of life, together with the disease dynamics within pairs during the first 30 days of life. An observational study was conducted in the summer of 2020, in a calf facility in Northern Colorado, USA. A total of 58 pairs of Holstein heifer calves were enrolled at birth and followed for 1 month to analyze disease dynamics within pairs housed together. A subgroup of 15 pairs of calves were video recorded to assess the dynamics in their behavior until 10 days of life. Calves were video recorded 3 times per day (AM, Noon, PM) for 60 min before and after each milk feeding (360 min/day). Behaviors of interest were resting and active time, play behavior, and time spent alone or together. Calf health was assessed 3 times per week. Linear mixed models were completed to evaluate differences in behavioral outcomes across days, considering pair as a cluster. Mean (SE) resting time ranged from 75.5 (2.8) to 107.9 (3.4) min per 120 min period, while active time ranged from 15.6 (6.9) to 84.5 (5.2) min per period. Calves modified their resting/active time over the monitoring period in both the AM and PM periods. Notably, calves spent over 50% of the active time performing play behaviors. From day 2, calves increased their active time interacting in social or synchronized play behaviors. Moreover, calves increased their time together inside the hutch in the AM from 17.9 (8.7) to 46.7 (9.1) min. Similarly, they increased their time together outside the hutch in the AM from 7.3 (3.6) to 31.4 (3.6) min, and during the PM from 3.5 (4.9) to 27.4 (5.5) min. Regarding disease presentation, 98% of the calves had events of abnormal fecal consistency within 30 days of life. However, 26% of the pair mates did not develop disease within 5 days following the diagnosis of the initial case within the pair. Furthermore, 75.6% of the abnormal fecal consistency cases were moderate, and 71.4% of pen mates did not show the same level of severity. Young calves modified their behavior towards a more social setting, despite challenging environmental conditions associated with the summer season. Diarrhea did not develop in all pair mates regardless of contact.

Assessing citizens’ views on the importance of animal welfare and other sustainability aspects in livestock farming using best–worst scaling

In recent years, farm animal welfare has become an important issue from both an animal science and a societal perspective. Moreover, livestock production is increasingly associated with negative consequences for human health, the environment, and the climate. Thus, there is clear evidence that a more sustainable focus in animal husbandry is needed. However, this is a complex and challenging task, as different stakeholders and emerging trade-offs regarding sustainability need to be considered. For example, outdoor climate housing systems may be socially valued and bring benefits to animal welfare, but at the same time may be detrimental to the environment, the climate, human health, or even animal health. With regard to a sustainable, future-oriented transformation of animal husbandry, it is crucial to identify potential trade-offs and to evaluate them from not only a scientific perspective, but also a societal perspective. Therefore, the aim of this study is to find out how citizens assess the importance of various aspects of livestock production from different goal categories (e.g., ensuring animal welfare vs. environmental or climate protection), as well as within the category “ensuring animal welfare” (e.g., good housing conditions vs. good health conditions). A total of 2,000 participants were recruited via an online panel provider using quota and split sampling. We used the best–worst scaling (BWS) approach to measure the importance of the different aspects for four different farm animal species (dairy cows: n = 503; fattening pigs: n = 500; broilers: n = 499; and laying hens: n = 498). The results show that, regardless of animal species, in a trade-off situation, citizens prioritize animal welfare and human health over other sustainability aspects and, in particular, over product attributes (i.e., product price and taste). In terms of animal welfare, the provision of good housing conditions was found to be the most important sub-aspect for all animal species, but good feeding and animal health were also ranked highly. We consider our results valuable for the development of policy frameworks aimed at a sustainable and socially accepted transformation of current animal husbandry.

The Intersectionality of Environmental Injustice, Other Societal Harms, and Farmed Animal Welfare

How we treat nonhuman animals (“animals”) not only reflects the morals and values of society, but our treatment also has enormous effects on society. Our actions toward farmed animals, in particular, cause immense suffering and devastating impact. Building upon a concurring opinion drafted by Judge J. Harvie Wilkinson III of the Fourth Circuit, this article discusses the myriad environmental, animal welfare, and societal harms of factory farming. Addressing the underlying animal-rearing practices that breed these harms will abate many of them. Such practices include caging animals in spaces so small they cannot turn around, warehousing animals in structures with no outdoor access, collecting tons of gallons of animal waste and disposing of it in the surrounding environment, and slaughtering animals at such high rates and line speeds that food and worker safety are put on the line. These actions disregard animal welfare and have enormously harmful external environmental and societal consequences. Black, Indigenous, People of Color (BIPOC) and people experiencing poverty are affected the most by each of the associated harms. These intersectional injuries demonstrate that farmed animal welfare is an integral component of environmental justice.

A method for calculating the external costs of farm animal welfare based on the Welfare Quality® Protocol

The production of food from animals poses societal concern about the welfare of these animals in Western countries and increasingly also in economically developing countries. Animals and people may experience disutility from animal suffering, which can be seen as an external cost that is not (fully) included in the cost of production. Thus, consumers will consume too much of the good from an aggregate utilitarian perspective. A potential way to solve this issue is by including these external costs in the production costs. The aim of this paper was to provide a method that can be used to estimate the external costs of animal welfare (AW) of animals kept at farm level. The external costs were calculated by means of a cost function. This cost function shows the relationship between the AW score and costs of AW measures at farm level. The AW scores were calculated from principle scores of the Welfare Quality® Protocol. The method was applied to three case studies, namely dairy cattle production in Germany, pig production in the Netherlands, and broiler production in the Netherlands. The results indicate that the external costs of AW of dairy cattle systems ranged from 0.02 to 0.10 euro/kg milk, those of pig production systems from 1.00 to 1.36 euro/kg live weight and those of broiler production systems from 3.67 to 4.52 euro/kg live weight. The empirical application showed that the method was effective in estimating external animal costs. The insights obtained from the application of our method can support decision making in the development and adoption of more AW friendly production systems.

Ecologically Unequal Exchange and Farm Animal Welfare: An Empirical Analysis Using the Voiceless Animal Cruelty Index

ABSTRACT Ecologically unequal exchange theory explains that unequal trade arrangements between higher- and lower-income countries result in greater environmental degradation in lower-income countries. Farm animals are sometimes neglected by sociology because of their unique place between nature and society. Here, we extend ecologically unequal exchange theory to analyze trade relationships between higher- and lower-income countries and farm animal cruelty, using data from 2014. Results from regression analyses show that contrary to what we would expect based on ecologically unequal exchange theory, higher levels of exports to high-income countries from low- and middle-income countries is associated with lower overall farm animal cruelty and production of farm animal cruelty. We suggest that this may be the result of spillover effects, where the types of legislation meant to improve farm animal welfare passed in high-income countries are affecting lower-income countries, and call for more research into animal welfare, including research that examines changes over time as data become available.