Farmable Land Research Articles

Hydroponics with Microalgae and Cyanobacteria: Emerging Trends and Opportunities in Modern Agriculture.

The global population is expected to reach 9.5 billion, which means that crop productivity needs to double to meet the growing population's food demand. Soil degradation and environmental factors, such as climate events, significantly threaten crop production and global food security. Furthermore, rapid urbanization has led to 55% of the world's population migrating to cities, and this proportion is expected to increase to 75% by 2050, which presents significant challenges in producing staple foods through conventional hinterland farming. Numerous studies have proposed various sustainable farming techniques to combat the shortage of farmable land and increase food security in urban areas. Soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics have gained worldwide popularity due to their resource efficiency and production of superior-quality fresh products. However, using chemical nutrients in a conventional hydroponic system can have significant environmental impacts, including eutrophication and resource depletion. Incorporating microalgae into hydroponic systems as biostimulants offers a sustainable and ecofriendly approach toward circular bioeconomy strategies. The present review summarizes the plant growth-promoting activity of microalgae as biostimulants and their mechanisms of action. We discuss their effects on plant growth parameters under different applications, emphasizing the significance of integrating microalgae into a closed-loop circular economy model to sustainably meet global food demands.

Exploring the impacts of land use and land cover change on ecosystem services in Dongting Lake, China: a spatial and temporal analysis

Background and objectives: Land use and land cover change (LULCC) directly affects the human living environment and economic society by influencing ecosystem services. This study explores the complex relationship between LULCC and ecosystem services in the Dongting Lake region of China.Methods: The analysis incorporates the transfer matrix analysis of LULCC, ecosystem service value (ESV) accounting, Mann–Kendall mutation test, gray correlation, and path analysis. This study explored the spatial and temporal characteristics of LULCC and ecosystem services and revealed the comprehensive impacts of LULCC on ecosystem services from the perspective of factor interactions.Findings: The findings reveal that open water (OW) area and farmable land are the dominant land use types transferring in and out of the study area, with significant interconversion observed among open water area, wetland (WL), arable land (AL), and forest land (FL). Water conservation, waste disposal, climate regulation, and biodiversity conservation emerge as the most crucial ecosystem services in the study area. The study identifies consistent patterns of abrupt changes in LULCC and ESV across six analyzed time periods. Forest land exhibits the most substantial direct influence on climate regulation, gas exchange, soil formation and protection, conservation of biodiversity, raw materials, and recreation and leisure. Additionally, forest land, wetland, arable land, and open water area contribute significantly to the total ESV, with forest land being the dominant factor influencing the spatial differentiation of ecosystem services in the Dongting Lake region.Conclusion: The research reveals the consistency of ecosystem services and LULCC trends in the Dongting Lake area. LULCC is a complex process influenced by multiple factors, in which the conversion between ecological and non-ecological land use has a significant impact, and the complex coupling and coordination among LULCC drivers together influence ecosystem services. Furthermore, LULCC alters the structure and scale of ecosystems, resulting in alterations in the ESV.

A Review of the Harvesting Techniques of Microalgae

Algae are an important group of photosynthetic autotrophs and are commonly found in different types of water bodies, including paddy fields. The algal group possesses distinctive characteristics and ranges from prokaryotic cyanobacteria to eukaryotic algae. Within these, microalgae are unicellular microorganisms widely distributed in saltwater as well as freshwater environments. Microalgae species have been utilized in different fields, especially animal and human nutrition, medicine, bioremediation, and bio-fertilizers. Recently, numerous studies have reported the importance of microalgae in the production of biofuel. Further, microalgae have great carbon dioxide fixation efficiency during growth, so farmable land is not required for cultivating microalgae. Microalgae biomass production is a three-step process: cultivation, harvesting, and processing. Of these, the harvesting process is considered challenging due to its high cost, and it directly affects the processing step. In addition, several factors influence the harvesting process, including the size of microalgae cells (<30 µm), cultural conditions of microalgae, electronegative property of cell membrane, growth rate, etc. The harvesting of microalgae is an elaborate process that involves different chemical or mechanical approaches. A number of harvesting techniques have been utilized to recover algal biomass, such as membrane filtration, chemical and bio-flocculation, flotation centrifugation, sedimentation, and coagulation. In this context, this review aims to discuss various types of techniques used for harvesting microalgae. This review could be useful for selecting appropriate harvesting technology for enhancing the yield of microalgae biomass.

Assessing Food Security Scenario at the Ward Level in Nepal: An Analysis of Caloric Needs from Diverse Crops Based on Location-Specific Factors and Policy Implications

Food security means access to food along with food production and availability to every individual at a reasonable cost according to the calorific needs of people. To assure food safety to 30 million Nepali people, it is essential to utilize every piece of available farmable land in each geographic region of seven provinces. We analyzed individual household food intake, dietary energy adequacy, and nutritional status and needs at the ward level of Nepal. We used a decadal (2010-2020) average food production of different crops per unit of farmable area, and food needs for people living in that ward based on their gender and nutritional requirements to perform various activities in different geographic regions of seven provinces. We assumed three food consumption scenarios: a) traditional practices of meeting dietary needs only from major crops; b) consuming major and minor crops; and c) consuming major and minor crops and meat and fruit products. Our analysis revealed that it is essential for Nepal to implement policies that will encourage crop diversification comprising both major and minor crops and inform the public about the nutritional values of various crops that can be grown utilizing location-specific environments in different geographic regions of seven provinces. Our findings assist in policy instrumentation that will pursue farming communities to supplement their dietary needs with diverse crop products and suggest government set aside some matching funds to encourage remitters, who return to Nepal with knowledge and financial resources, to engage in agriculture. We also argue that crop diversification is needed to assure farm productivity if certain crops fail due to unforeseen environmental calamities.

Land-use Suitability is Not an Intrinsic Property of a Land Parcel

Agricultural production has economic, environmental, social and cultural consequences beyond farm boundaries, but information about these impacts is not readily available to decision makers. This study applied the land use suitability concept by carrying out an assessment of a region that has the potential for intensification of agricultural production, but where eutrophication of river and estuary receiving environments due to nitrogen enrichment is a significant issue. The assessment evaluated three indicators for each farmable land parcel in the region: productive potential (the inherent productive and economic potential of the parcel), relative contribution (the potential for the parcel to contribute nitrogen to receiving environments compared to other land parcels), and pressure (the load of nitrogen delivered to receiving environments compared to the loads that ensure environmental objectives are achieved). The assessment indicated that land with high suitability for land-use intensification in Southland is limited because areas with high productive potential and low relative contribution rarely coincide with receiving environments with low pressure. Existing data, methods and models can be used to calculate the indicators under different choices for regional land-use intensity and receiving environment objectives. However, the spatial resolution and accuracy that is achievable may preclude using assessment outputs to make land use decisions at small spatial scales such as individual farms. The study highlighted that land use suitability is not an intrinsic property of a land parcel because it is dependent on choices about land use elsewhere in the landscape and the environmental objectives, and that land use suitability is inherently subjective because of decisions that concern how indicators are combined and weighted.

Nanomagnetic approach applied to microalgae biomass harvesting: advances, gaps, and perspectives

Microalgae biomass is a versatile option for a myriad of purposes, as it does not require farmable land for cultivation and due of its high CO2 fixation efficiency during growth. However, biomass harvesting is considered a bottleneck in the process because of its high cost. Magnetic harvesting is a promising method on account of its low cost, high harvesting speed, and efficiency, which can be used to improve the results of other harvesting methods. Here, we present the state of the art of the magnetic harvesting method. Detailed approaches involving different nanomaterials are described, including types, route of synthesis, and functionalization, variables that interfere with harvesting, and recycling methods of nanoparticles and medium. In addition to discussing the overall perspectives of the method, we provide a guideline for future research.

Investigation on Industrial Waste Material for Stabilizing the Expansive Soil

The increasing demand of fertilizer for agricultural field to make the farmable land results in the more generation of byproducts during the manufacturing stages. These byproducts can be utilized by various treatment techniques for the reduction of its contaminants due to its disposal for long time. In this study, the strength characteristics of two expansive clayey soils were studied and it was observed an enhancement in strength by the addition of an industrial waste product, Phosphogypsum as a stabilizing agent at various percentages of 2, 4, 6 and 8 by weight of soil. The attainment in strength characteristics of soil due to the mixing of additive has studied by conducting Unconfined Compressive strength tests at the various time periods of 14, 28 and 60 days. UCS results showed that soil solidification process by the additive exhibited the maximum compressive strength of 50% when the addition of Phosphogypsum reached by 6% at the curing period of 28 days. The improvement in soil characteristics were analysed chemically and it was also studied under microstructural analysis, X- Ray Diffraction methods. Microstuctural studies reported a remarkable change in the mineralogy of the treated soil, with the fine phases formed due to the pozzalonic reactions which are responsible for the strength development. Thus the Phosphogypsum waste in the clay as a soil stabilizer suggests a most economical material for the remarkable improvement in the properties of soil and it will be the best options to manage this waste as sustainable material towards the green environment.

Sustainable Soil and Water Resources Management in Nigeria: The Need for a Data-Driven Policy Approach

Effective public policies are needed to manage a nation’s natural resources, including soil and water. However, making such policies currently requires a shift from a traditional qualitative approach to a mix of scientific data, evidence and the relevant social elements, termed data-driven policymaking. Nigeria, like most developing countries, falls short of the framework for this approach. Nevertheless, the lack of potable water in some regions and the continuous degradation of farmable lands call for intervention through effective policy formulation and implementation. In this work, we present a conceptual workflow as a strategic step towards developing a framework for a data-driven soil and water resources management policy. A review of the current legal and policy framework and selected scientific literature on soil and water resources in Nigeria is presented. Analysis of the National Water Resources Bill proposed in 2018 is used to highlight existing gaps between policy, scientific data and reality. Modern field techniques and project-based examples for soil and aquifer characterization that can be adapted for local use are presented. While government must take responsibility for the poor policy framework, the research community is challenged on the need for scientific data as a base for effective policy formulation and implementation.

Democracy and Feudalistic between Daisy Miller and Mrs. Costello through Sociological Approach as reflected in Daisy Miller (1879)

There are several kinds of literary works. They are a poem, novel, fiction, drama,etc. Daisy Miller is one of the famous and popular novels. This novel is written inthe spring of London. The Author is Henry James. The writer analyzed this novel bythe sociological approach. This research applies qualitative research which thedata are taken from the analysis document and material from books and internetresearch. Data analysis concerns the interpretative technique that focuses onexamining data. The main source of this research is the novel Daisy Miller thisresearch is going to answer the research questions what is the characteristic ofdemocracy and Feudalistic is as reflected in Daisy miller novel? And what are thephenomena between democracy and Feudalistic in Daisy Miller novel? From theanalysis the author concluded that Daisy Miller is a representative of Americanwoman as same as democracy in the American Custom, She is going abroad toSwitzerland which is peaceful country inhabited by all kinds of people of differentrace, ethnic, language, skin color, religion, profession, from all over the world.The Henry James as the author showed Daisy Miller as a vulgar and as free asthe representation of American culture that has correlated with the social life. On theother hand, the author describes Mrs. Costello as a Feudalistic of Europeanculture. Mrs. Costello is a representation as European social-life that alwaysdistinguishes between high and low status and it is one of the character of Feudalism.The feudalistic was that the power of the ruling class or Aristocracy rested on theircontrol of the farmable lands, leading to a class based upon the exploitation of thepeasants who farm these lands.

Internet of Things Enabled Intelligent Mote with LoRa Architecture for Agricultural Use

As the world's population grows, there is pressure to switch to more sustainable agricultural methods. This, together with dwindling supplies of raw materials, shrinking amounts of farmable land, and more extreme weather events, has caused widespread anxiety about national food supplies. As a result, more farmers are turning to IoT and DA in an effort to maximise output while decreasing input costs. Smart agriculture is now being driven mostly by the IoT and data analytics, rather than by wireless sensor networks (WSN). Some of the technologies that have been merged to form the Internet of Things include wireless sensor networks for radio-frequency proof of identity, cloud computing, middleware infrastructures and customer-facing software. The advantages and disadvantages of the IoT are discussed in this article. Here, we demonstrate how smart farming is being made possible by the convergence of IoT and DA, and how an IoT ecological map may be created. In addition, we categorise future advancements by technology, applications, economic feasibility, and consumer interest.

Pioneiros, fundadores e aventureiros – a ocupação de terras em Rondônia

Na região de Ariquemes, durante a década de 1970, foram implantados dois projetos de assentamento dirigidos (PADs), como parte da iniciativa de colonização do governo militar. Durante as primeiras incursões ao campo, percebi que muito daquilo que me interessava pesquisar sobre Rondônia confluía para uma identificação específica que caracterizava grande parte daqueles que foram responsáveis pela ocupação das terras no estado: o “pioneiro”. Este artigo tem como objetivo problematizar o uso de categorias posicionais ligadas ao processo de transformação da “floresta” em “terra”, isto é, a terra sem valor comercial para a “terra aberta” e, portanto, agricultável, destacando diferentes períodos. No momento da ocupação das terras, os ocupantes se consideravam “aventureiros”, havendo também desdobramento na categoria circunscrita a um momento histórico posterior, a de “fundador”. Na descrição etnográfica trazida para o texto, a partir de conversas realizadas com seis “pioneiros”, salientarei a diferença no uso das referidas categorias.

Understanding smallholder farmers' capacity to respond to climate change in a coastal community in Central Vietnam

Climate change as expressed by erratic rainfall, increased flooding, extended droughts, frequency tropical cyclones or saline water intrusion, poses severe threats to smallholder farmers in Vietnam. Adaptation of the agricultural sector is vital to increase the resilience of smallholder farmers’ livelihoods in times of climate change. To complement efforts already implemented by farmers to reduce social vulnerability it is important to understand how farmers perceive their current and future capacity to adapt to climate change. This paper aims to explore smallholder farmers’ capacity to respond to climate change in current and future agricultural production. We carried out open, in-depth interviews (n = 13), focus group discussions, and structured interviews (n = 114) in the Thua Thien Hue province. Our findings show that farmers nowadays experience more extreme climate variability. Farmers report increasing stresses due to temperature increase and droughts. The autonomous adaptation strategies adopted by farmers include; adjusting the season calendar, using tolerant varieties and breeds, applying integrated crop production models, and income diversification. The motives for adopting particular planned adaptation options differ between farmers in crop production and livestock production. Four factors were found to be significant (p < .05) in influencing the spread of adaptation measures (AMs) farmers adopted: farm income, the number of available information sources, number of workers on the farm, and farmable land available during the summer season. Farmers report several barriers to implement adaptation strategies including; market price fluctuations, lack of skilled labour, lack of climate change information, and lack of capacity to learn and apply techniques in their daily practice. While both crop and livestock farmers participated in one or several training courses on climate change in the past years, livestock farmers were still uncertain about their future capacity and possible AMs.

A Survey of Ranging and Imaging Techniques for Precision Agriculture Phenotyping

Agricultural production must double by 2050 in order to meet the expected food demand due to population growth. Precision agriculture is the key to improve productivity and efficiency in the use of resources, thus helping to achieve this goal under the diverse challenges currently faced by agriculture mainly due to climate changes, land degradation, availability of farmable land, labor force shortage, and increasing costs. To face these challenges, precision agriculture uses and develops sensing methodologies that provide information about crop growth and health indicators. This paper presents a survey of the state-of-the-art in optical visible and near-visible spectrum sensors and techniques to estimate phenotyping variables from intensity, spectral, and volumetric measurements. The sensing methodologies are classified into three areas according to the purpose of the measurements: 1) plant structural characterization; 2) plant/fruit detection; and 3) plant physiology assessment. This paper also discusses the progress in data processing methods and the current open challenges in agricultural tasks in which the development of innovative sensing methodologies is required, such as pruning, fertilizer and pesticide management, crop monitoring, and automated harvesting.

Factors Influencing Cultivated Area Decisions of the Rural Area in the Fringe of Small and Medium Sizes City

This study consists of an observation of the changes in management and agricultural production of Shinbuk-eup based on the data from the Agricultural, Forestry & Census Report Survey. The following is a short summary and suggestions of the research. First, taking a look at the farming conditions of Shinbuk-eup, it shows that it is extremely polarized into rice paddies and vegetable cropping. Second, using the Tobit model to analyze the factor of determination of farmable lands of the farmers in Shinbuk-eup, the higher the number of family members, the less the hired work, and the more the experience in farming, have larger farmable lands. Meanwhile, the younger the farmer, their land mass is higher, however, after reaching their threshold age, their lands decrease.

Biomass pretreatment: a critical choice for biomass utilization via biotechnological routes

The necessary biomass pretreatment step, to render the material accessible to the relevant enzyme pool, has been under thorough investigation as the production of biomass syrups, via enzymatic hydrolysis, with high sugars concentrations and yields and low inhibitors concentrations requires the pretreatment to be both efficient and low cost. A good choice for biomass pretreatment should be made by considering: (i) the possibility to use high biomass concentration; (ii) a highly digestible pretreated solid by either increasing the biomass superficial area or decrease in crystallinity or both; (iii) no significant sugar degradation into toxic compounds; (iv) yeast and bacterial fermentation compatibility of the derived sugar syrups; (v) lignin recovery; (vi) operation in reasonably sized and moderately priced reactors and (vii) minimum heat and power requirements [1]. Considering the most known pretreatments, such as diluted acid, hydrothermal processes, steam explosion, milling, extrusion, and ionic liquids, different pretreatment methods produce different effects on the biomass in terms of its structure and composition [2]. For example, the hydrothermal, steam explosion and acidic pretreatments conceptually remove mainly the biomass hemicellulose fraction whereas alkaline pretreatments remove lignin. On the other hand the product of a milling-based pretreatment retains the biomass initial composition. Furthermore, cellulose crystallinity is not significantly reduced by pretreatments based on steam, or hydrothermal, or acidic procedures, whereas ionic liquid-based techniques can shift crystalline cellulose into amorphous cellulose, substantially increasing the enzymatic hydrolysis rates and yields. As such, the choice of pretreatment and its operational conditions as well as the composition of the enzyme blend used in the hydrolysis step, determines the hexose and pentose sugars composition, the concentration and toxicity of the resulting biomass syrups. The activity profile of the enzyme blend and the enzyme load for an effective saccharification may also vary according to the pretreatment. Indeed, a low hemicellulase load can be used for a xylan-free biomass and a lower cellulase load will be needed for the hydrolysis of a low crystalline and highly amorphous pretreated biomass material. As the pretreatment choice will also be affected by the type of biomass, the envisaged biorefinery model will need to consider the main types of biomass that will be used for the biorefinery operation so as to select an appropriate, and versatile pretreatment method [3]. Considering the biorrefinery concept which broadens the biomass derived products, the C6 sugars could be fermented into ethanol, while the C5 stream could be used for the production, via biotechnological routes, of a wide range of chemicals with higher added value. To date, sugarcane and woody biomass, depending on the geographic location, are strong candidates as the main renewable resources to be fed into a biorefinery. However, due to major differences regarding their physical properties and chemical composition, the relevant pretreatments to be used in each case are expected to be selective and customized. Moreover, a necessary conditioning step for wood size reduction, prior to the pretreatment, may not be necessary for sugarcane bagasse, affecting the pretreatment energy consumption and costs. Moreover, the choice of pretreatment should take into account the foreseen utilization of the main biomass molecular components (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin). It is important to point out that lignin can be used as a valuable solid fuel or as a source of aromatic structures for the chemical industry. Sugarcane is one of the major agricultural crops when considering ethanol production, especially in tropical countries. In Brazil, sugarcane occupies 8.4 million hectares, which corresponds to 2.4% of farmable lands in Brazil. The gross revenue of this sector is about US$ 20 billion (54% as ethanol, 44% as sugar, and 2% as bioelectricity) [4]. In addition, up to 50% of all vehicles in Brazil are flex fuel cars, which corresponds to approximately 15 million cars [5]. Given the above, Brazil is an important player in this scenario, and, consequently, sugarcane bagasse and straw are promising feed stocks for biomass ethanol. Brazil produced, in 2008, 415 million tons of sugar cane residues, 195 million tons of sugarcane bagasse, and 220 million tons of sugarcane straw, whereas the forecast for the 2011 sugarcane production is 590 million tons, which would correspond to 178 million tons of bagasse, and 200 million tons of straw [6]. Currently, in Brazil, R&D on the use of biomass via biotechnological routes has been focused mainly on agricultural residues such as sugarcane residual biomass.

Acetyl salicylic acid induces stress tolerance in tomato plants grown at a low night-time temperature

SummaryAbiotic stresses are becoming more prevalent as the intensity of agriculture and the demand for farmable land increase. Night-time temperature is one of the major environmental factors that influence plant metabolic processes. The permeability of cell membranes, levels of osmoregulatory substances, reproductive flowering stage, growth rate, and total anti-oxidant capacities of leaves were investigated in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum, formerly Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. ‘Liaoyuanduoli’) plants exposed to a low night-time temperature (LNT) of 9ºC or to an ambient night-time temperature (ANT) of 15ºC, with or without exogenous foliar spray treatment with acetyl salicylic acid (acetyl-SA). Three applications of 1.0 ml of 0.4 mM acetyl-SA made to 4-week-old tomato seedlings at 5 d intervals reduced the decline in fruit yield in the first and second fruit clusters due to LNT treatment by decreasing malondialdehyde (MDA) and increasing proline concentrations and total anti-oxidant capacity in tomato leaves. Under LNT stress, lipid peroxidation, measured in terms of MDA content, and hence membrane permeability were reduced by 0.4 mM acetyl-SA treatment. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POX) activities were increased by 0.4 mM acetyl-SA treatment. The accumulation of superoxide free radicals (O2•–) was inhibited, but H2O2 concentrations were increased by 0.4 mM acetyl-SA treatment. These results suggest that acetyl-SA could be used as a growth regulator to improve fruit yields and the tolerance of tomato plants exposed to LNT stress.

Mass-cultivation of carbohydrate rich macroalgae, a possible solution for sustainable biofuel production

Global demand for bio-fuels continues unabated. Rising concerns over environmental pollution and global warming have encouraged the movement to alternate fuels, the world ethanol market is projected to reach 86 billion litres this year. Bioethanol is currently produced from land-based crops such as corn and sugar cane. A continued use of these crops drives the food versus fuel debate. An alternate feed-stock which is abundant and carbohydrate-rich is necessary. The production of such a crop should be sustainable, and, reduce competition with production of food, feed, and industrial crops, and not be dependent on agricultural inputs (pesticides, fertilizer, farmable land, water). Marine biomass could meet these challenges, being an abundant and carbon neutral renewable resource with potential to reduce green house gas (GHG) emissions and the man-made impact on climate change. Here we examine the current cultivation technologies for marine biomass and the environmental and economic aspects of using brown seaweeds for bio-ethanol production.

Exogenous applications of salicylic acid affect quality and yield of strawberry grown under antifrost heated greenhouse conditions

AbstractAbiotic stress is becoming more prevalent as the intensity of agriculture and the demand for farmable land are ever increasing. Besides drought and salinity stress, chilling or freezing stress is one of the most important limiting factors of crop production all around the world. Salicylic acid (SA) is a common plant‐produced signal molecule that is responsible for inducing resistance to a number of biotic and abiotic stresses. This study was conducted to determine the effect of foliar SA applications on fruit‐quality characteristics and yield of strawberry under antifrost heated greenhouse conditions in two successive experiments. Spraying of 1 mM SA (1 mM) was done once (SA1), twice (SA2), three times (SA3), or four times (SA4) during the vegetation period with 7 d intervals. Concentrations of chlorophyll and minerals were measured in leaves, and vitamin C (ascorbic acid), total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), and color (a*) in fruits. Fruit weight, early yield, and total yield were also determined. Foliar applications of SA positively affected TSS and ascorbic acid (AA) content of strawberry fruits. Salicylic acid treatments had no effect on TA of strawberry fruits. SA4 treatment gave the greatest a* in fruit and chlorophyll‐concentration values in the leaves. It was shown that SA treatments increased the content of all nutrients in the leaves of strawberry plants, and greater values often were obtained from SA3 and SA4 treatments. The early yield and total yield of strawberry were significantly affected by SA applications, among which SA3 and SA4 resulted in the highest early and total yields. The present study suggests that SA3 and SA4 treatments can ameliorate the deleterious effects of low temperatures on strawberry plants and that SA application may offer an economical and simple method for low‐temperature protection.

Beyond Water Harvesting: A Soil Hydrology Perspective on Traditional Southwestern Agricultural Technology

This article presents a hypothetical, general model that describes the processes involved in one aspect of traditional Southwestern agriculture: the interactions between soil hydrology and farming technology. In conjunction with extensive participation in hand cultivation with Hopi farmers, studies of soil hydrologic processes in Hopi maize fields have identified hydrological processes directly linked to Hopi field location criteria and farming practices. Field location criteria select for locations where soil textures and soil profile heterogeneity control rates of moisture infiltration, as well as loss to runoff, bare soil evaporation, and drainage. Farming practices, including clearing, maintenance, plant spacing, seed depth, and planting pit morphology, operate in conjunction with soil profile attributes to increase the amount of moisture available to plants and the mobility of that moisture. Effects of both soil profile attributes and farming practices are integrated into the discrete soil volume model of hydrologic processes occurring in the basic unit of Hopi farming, the individual plant clump. This information provides basic insights on ways archaeologists might evaluate the productive potentials of soils, the extent of farmable land around prehistoric communities, and the ranges of climate conditions that permit crop growth on that land.

Growing Awareness in Paraguay: School Gardens Give Children the Tools to Prosper

Children, Youth and Environments Vol 13, No.1 (Spring 2003) ISSN 1546-2250 Growing Awareness in Paraguay: School Gardens Give Children the Tools to Prosper Darcy Varney University of Colorado Citation: Varney, Darcy. “Growing Awareness in Paraguay: School Gardens Give Children the Tools to Prosper.” Children, Youth and Environments 13(1), Spring 2003. Retrieved [date] from http://colorado.edu/journals/cye. Keywords: Paraguay; South America; gardening; rural poverty Located in the heart of South America, Paraguay is a land in transition. The country’s population, comprised of blended groups of indigenous Guarani people and descendents of Spanish settlers, is growing at a rate of 2.9 percent, and more and more young people are leaving their families’ traditional, agriculture-based subsistence existence for life in the cities. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) reports that more than half of Paraguay’s 5.5 million people live in urban areas. UNDP estimates that by the year 2015, the proportion of urban dwellers will increase to 65 percent of the population. Youth in search of an education often leave rural areas to live with friends or relatives in the cities, since staying with their families means migrating to harvest crops or find farmable land, interrupting their studies. Few who stay in rural areas have access to secondary schools or other educational resources beyond primary school. Plan International, a non-profit global alliance that seeks to improve children’s well- being and promotes children’s rights, is helping to bring educational opportunities to Paraguay’s rural children. In the summer of 2000, Plan introduced the concept of vegetable gardening at 48 rural primary schools in the southern provinces of Cordillera, Paraguarí, Caaguazú, and Guairá. The program aimed to improve children’s health through nutrition and provide them with skills they could share with their parents. The people of Paraguay have long lived on a mostly vegetarian diet of cassava (a potato-like tuber), corn and beans. Surviving on less than US$2 per day, half of 377 the population cannot afford to purchase fresh produce, which sells at a premium. To help children and community members build gardens, Plan provided seeds, garden tools, and materials to construct small fences, along with technical support to the schools. As children worked together on the gardens, they learned how to care for the plants and use environmentally friendly organic fertilizers. Students and staff at some schools formed garden committees to oversee the entire process. The children grew carrots, tomatoes, lettuce, and beets, among other vegetables. A number of parents also participated by priming the soil and building fences to enclose the gardens. The children were eager to succeed, especially given the challenge of keeping the plants alive during cold weather. They came up with a simple solution that worked: covering the gardens with straw and newspaper to protect the plants from frost. After harvesting the vegetables, children ate them with their lunches at school and took home the leftovers to share with their families. Through this initiative, more than 2,500 children learned about the importance of nutritional foods and about gardening activities they could replicate at home. Plan International works in rural areas of 45 developing countries, including Paraguay, assisting child survival, providing clean drinking water and developing formal and informal educational programs. For more information about this or other Plan projects, contact: Childreach, 155 Plan Way, Warwick, RI 02886; 800-556-7918 ...