Tractor Research Articles

Investigation of aerodynamics in combustion of vegetative waste on isothermal models

Modern agricultural vehicles contain a large number of components, which include micro Abstract. Conventional furnaces using alternative fuels, such as vegetable waste (VW), are widely used instead of furnaces operating on conventional fuels. The furnaces aggregated with dryers of SZT and SP type are widely used in agriculture and food industry. Two models with a suspended bed were investigated: with flare-vortex and cyclone-vortex modes. The first model assumes the presence of an inclined grate in a rectangular chamber with a concentrated supply of secondary blast, primary blast with material is supplied above the grate in its lower part, and the second model assumes a cylindrical-shaped chamber with primary air inlet in the center and cyclonic secondary blast inlet at a certain height. This scheme is close to the first, only in the lower part of the model concentrated input of primary blast with material. The methodology of aerodynamics studies included: feeding of material from the hopper; material cutoff after steady-state mode; collection and weighing of fallen particles from the model; determination of the time of material presence in the model by labeled particles. Modeling of aerodynamics for different schemes of furnace process organization showed the possibility of creating two-span or single-span furnace blocks depending on the required operating mode. The results of comparative studies of aerodynamics of flare-vortex and cyclone-vortex modes are given. The results of comparative studies of aerodynamics of flare-vortex and cyclone-vortex modes are given. Optimal blowing parameters, secondary and primary air ratio, furnace design parameters contributing to the maximum specific volume heat stress are determined.

Development of a system for testing electronic control units of agricultural machinery

Modern agricultural vehicles contain a large number of components, which include microcontrollers that implement various algorithms, so deviations and inaccuracies in their work naturally lead to failures and errors in the system as a whole. At the moment, manufacturers of agricultural machinery have in their arsenal relatively simple systems and testing methods that do not allow for a deep check of algorithms and their electronic components, so the development of a comprehensive system for testing electronic components is an urgent task. The article describes the development and operation of a testing system for setting up, testing and debugging the logic of the operation of existing and future (under development) electronic units, including control units from the on-board control system of agricultural machinery. In the process of work, methods of computer modeling, programming and software packages FreeCAD, CAD KOMPAS-3D v21 and SW4STM32 were used. The programming languages Python 3 and C/C++ were used to write the code. The result of the study is the development of a methodology and the manufacture of a prototype testing system (software and hardware complex), the practical use of which has shown its versatility and versatility. The developed system makes it possible to implement an analysis of the response of the control system to pre-designed test effects, to diagnose defects, breakdowns and malfunctions of the device, both in normal and emergency operating conditions. The system also allows you to simulate the emergency conditions of agricultural machinery and check the stability of the control device in limiting and emergency modes.

Toxicity Assessment of a Biolubricant Exposed to Eisenia fetida

In the current search for products that are friendly to the environment, the intent is to reduce the use of domestic, food and industrial waste of mineral origin, thereby creating new products that are functional in industrial and agricultural processes. That is why the use of raw chicken skin fat was evaluated for the creation of a biolubricant with possible applications in the operation of heavy machinery, such as agricultural tractors. The acute toxicity of the biolubricant made from transesterified fatty acids obtained from chicken skin fat was determined experimentally, using bioassays with Eisenia fetida as a test organism, by means of the median lethal concentration (LC50) using the probit method (p < 0.05) on the filter paper at 48 h and on an artificial substrate at 14 days, resulting in an LC50 of 878.675 mg mL−1 or 0.0268 mg cm−2 and 35.2348 mg kg−1, respectively. Likewise, the physiological damage was determined by means of histology, and it could be observed that there was no damage on the Eisenia fetida cell tissue. This indicates that the biolubricant is suitable for use in agricultural machinery since, in the event of an accidental spill, it does not cause damage to the soil or the organisms that live in it, as well as to the people who handle this type of product in their daily work.

Ecological efficiency of semi-tracked forest vehicles

Most of the logging enterprises of the Russian Federation are small, and perform low-volume logging. Such enterprises often use wheeled agricultural tractors, which in difficult operating conditions can be retrofitted into a half-track. The article analyzes the environmental efficiency of wheeled tractors on a half-track.

Method of determining of reasonable tire sizes for wheeled agricultural tractors

Method of determining of reasonable tire sizes for wheeled agricultural tractors

Agricultural Tractor Retail and Wholesale Residual Value Forecasting Model in Western Europe

The residual value of agricultural tractors plays a pivotal role in the financial viability of agribusiness enterprises. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of comprehensive studies concerning the prognostication of both retail and wholesale residual values specific to agricultural tractors within the context of Western Europe. This research introduces an innovative methodology for assessing the residual worth of agricultural tractors, with particular consideration given to the substantial pricing discrepancies between retail and wholesale transactions. Leveraging publicly available auction data, we develop a polynomial regression model aimed at forecasting the intricate relationship between retail and wholesale residual values. Notably, the model demonstrates an exceptional robustness, surpassing previous research endeavors, as evidenced by a remarkably low root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 0.0159 and a combined adjusted coefficient of determination (RSqAdj) of 0.9997. The findings of this study offer invaluable insights into a diverse array of stakeholders, empowering them to make well-informed decisions regarding machinery specifications, investment strategies, and asset disposal choices, thereby facilitating optimal financial performance.

Performance Evaluation of a Virtual Test Model of the Frame-Type ROPS for Agricultural Tractors Using FEA

In this study, a model of the frame-type ROPS (rollover protective structure) for an agricultural tractor was developed using FEA (finite-element analysis). Various boundary conditions were applied as input variables to replace the actual test of the ROPS with a virtual test. An optimization study was carried out based on the boundary conditions of the bolt, considering the ROPS part directly mounted on the tractor and the folding connection to the ROPS. The results of the virtual test were compared with those of the actual test, and the error was determined. The maximum error of the evaluation model was 7.0% for the force applied on the load and 9.6% for the corresponding ROPS deformation. All mounting bolts of the ROPS required modeling. In particular, we had to establish free boundary conditions for axial rotation to implement the folding connection. In addition, a simulation of the frame-type ROPS was conducted according to the mesh size. A convenient simulation time was obtained for a mesh size of 8~10 mm. Compared with the actual test, the accuracy was the highest with a mesh size of 6~8 mm.

Forest Operations Using a Combi–Forwarder in Deciduous Forests

In the last decade, technological innovation in the forest operations sector has allowed levels of mechanization alternative to agricultural tractors and animal logging. These machines are used to load logs from skid roads and move logs to the next pile, until the load space is fully loaded. Fortunately, in recent years the development of new technological progresses in forestry mechanization created an alternative operation on ground-based system with the use of a combi-forwarder for wood forwarding. These innovative machines have the advantage that only one machine can perform logs bunching and primary transport. Infact, pull stems by the winch from the stump to the road, after they have been cross-cutted by chainsaws, it loads by the forwarder’s crane the logs and transports them to the landing, where they are unloaded with the crane in piles.The aim of the present study was to analyse the operational time consumption, to estimate the productivity of the combi–forwarder with a built-in single-drum winch in beech stands evaluating the forwarding and winching distances, log’s volume transported per turn by the machine, as well as the extracting costs. The study was conducted in low-intensity shelterwood cuttings in beech forest, located in Western Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria.The mean productivity of the combi–forwarder was 7.09 m3 PMH− 1 and 6.11 m3 SMH− 1 close to that of the cable skidders and forwarders in similar conditions. The net costs for the studied combi–forwarder were calculated of 25.33 € per productive machine hour and 4.13 € per m3. The variable costs (70%) have a leading role, followed by labour costs (22%) and fixed costs (8%). The use of a combi-forwarders facilitates chainsaw operators, as some of the operations are carried out at the roadside in better working conditions: flat terrain and support of the crosscutting phase. The results from the study are useful to introduce and to integrate the combi–forwarders with shelterwood systems and to achieve economic and environmental efficiency of timber harvesting in deciduous forests.

Measurement of engine performance and maps-based emission prediction of agricultural tractors under actual operating conditions

This paper develops a comprehensive data collection system (CDCS) based on radio frequency identification (RFID) technology, on-board diagnostic system (OBD), and portable emission measurement system (PEMS) to study the performance of tractors in the real world. The actual operating modes, fuel consumption and emission levels of the tractor engine were studied and the braking thermal efficiency (BTE) under actual operating conditions was reported for the first time, with a maximum value close to 45%. The engine maps were developed and used to predict tractor emissions and fuel consumption, and the results showed that it can accurately predict tractor fuel consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, with mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and coefficient of determination (R2) values reaching over 90%. This article provides a reliable testing and prediction method for the actual performance of tractor engines, and suggests that real performance indicators should be given better attention.

Application of auto power shift (APS) controller for minimizing fuel consumption and performance evaluation of an agricultural tractor

Minimizing the fuel consumption of an agricultural tractor is the primary concern of researchers worldwide. Thus, developing a suitable controller that can reduce the fuel consumption of agricultural tractor is necessary. In this study, an automatic power shift (APS) controller that can select different engine modes, such as conventional, APS power, and APS ECO, is introduced. The objectives of this study are to verify the APS controller for asphalt driving, analyze the power delivery and fuel consumption of the tractor using different engine modes, and suggest the most suitable, efficient, and economical engine mode for the plowing operation. During asphalt driving, APS ECO mode has the lowest engine power of approximately 31.79 kW. Its fuel consumption is nearly 6.02 L/h, which is lower than those in the conventional and APS power modes by almost 43.84 and 21.10 % per working hour, respectively. However, the axle powers in all engine modes have no significant differences owing to the same forward speed of the tractor. The results prove the reliability of the APS controller performance. During the plowing operation, the engine power and fuel consumption in the APS ECO mode are approximately 70.29 kW and 18.46 L/h, respectively, which are lower than those in the conventional and APS power modes. However, the power delivery efficiency in the APS ECO mode is lower than that in the conventional mode, and the slip ratio is the highest among all engine modes. In addition, the tractive efficiency in the conventional mode, which is approximately 63.56 %, is the highest among all engine modes. However, the effective field capacity in the APS ECO mode for plowing is approximately 1.52 ha/h, which is the highest among all engine modes. The comparative analysis also shows that the working load in the APS ECO mode is located in the ungoverned region of the engine characteristic map, which can avoid sudden engine turn-off during large fluctuations in the working load. Furthermore, the fuel consumption in the APS ECO mode for plowing is reduced by almost 23.37 and 15.59 % compared with those in the conventional and APS power modes, respectively. Considering the fuel consumption and working load, the APS ECO mode is more economical than the APS power and conventional engine modes for both asphalt driving and plowing operations. Therefore, as the most economical, efficient, and suitable mode, this study recommends using the APS ECO mode for the agricultural tractors when performing the agricultural operations.

Desempenho energético de trator agrícola articulado: Modo manual versus automático

ABSTRACT Automatic production management (APM) is a tool that assists in the operations of agricultural tractors, increasing yield and energy efficiency. The objective of the experiment was to compare the energy and operational performance of a 373-kW articulated tractor equipped with APM and manual mode of engine transmission and rotation, across different real-world speeds. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with five replicates, using a split-plot arrangement with two system modes (manual and automatic) in the plots and four real-world speeds (4, 6, 8, and 10 km h-1) in the subplots, totaling 40 experimental units. The evaluated variables were: wheel slippage; engine rotation; hourly and specific fuel consumptions; drawbar force, power, and yield; operating speed; and engine thermal efficiency. The variance of the data was analyzed using Tukey’s test for the first factor, and regression analysis for the second factor and interactions. The automatic mode showed lower engine rotation and wheel slippage without compromising the other variables. The use of this mode showed energy advantages at 4 and 6 km h-1 by resulting in less fuel consumption per hour. In addition, the manual mode presented higher thermal efficiency at lower speeds than the automatic mode, which showed a linear increase.

The effect of adding weights and the forward speed of the agricultural tractor on some mechanical properties using the moldboard plow

The study was conducted during the agricultural season (2017-2018) and the size distribution of soil particles was (10.5% sand, 51.7 clay, 38.25 silt) so soil texture is clay soil to find out the effect of adding weights on the wheels of the agricultural tractor using the moldboard plow by measuring some indicators, including the drawbar power, soil resistance penetration, tillage depth achieved, and the soil disturbed volume and the field was divided according to a split plot arrangement under Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The results of the study showed that the addition of weights on the wheels of the tractor (310) kg recorded the lowest value for drawbar power and highest value for the tillage depth achieved, and the soil disturbed volume, while not adding weights (0) recorded the lowest value for the soil resistance penetration. The forward speed (3.3) km.h-1 excelled in recording the lowest value of the drawbar power and highest value of tillage depth achieved, while the third speed (7.7) km.h-1 excelled in recording the highest value of the soil disturbed volume and the lowest value of soil resistance penetration. The interaction between adding weights on the wheels of the tractor (310) kg and the forward speed (3.3) km.h-1 registry the less value the drawbar power and the highest value for soil resistance penetration and tillage depth achieved, while the addition of weights on the wheels tractor (310) kg and the forward speed (7.7) km.h-1 registry the highest value of the soil disturbed volume.

Effect of Added Weights on Tractor Rear Tires and Soil Moisture Content on Some Indicators of Mechanical Unit Performance During Moldboard Plowing

The study was conducted to find out the effect of adding weights on the wheels of the agricultural tractor and soil moisture content using the moldboard plow by measuring some mechanical properties, including the drawbar power,fuel consumption, soil bulk density , irregularity index of tillage depth as a percentage and the soil disturbed volume in the cultivation season (2017-2018)in one of the agricultural fields with soil of clay texture which is located in the northeast of Mosul city. and the texture of the soil was clay the field was divided according to a split plot arrangement under Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The results of the study showed that the soil moisture content (14-16)% achieved fewer values for drawbar power, fuel consumption, irregularity index of tillage depth as a percentage and soil bulk density and the higher values for soil disturbed volume, while, the adding weights on tractor wheels of (310)kg gave the less values for drawbar power, fuel consumption, soil bulk density and Irregularity index of tillage depth as a percentage and higher values for treated soil volume, also the interaction between the soil moisture content (14-16)% with adding weights on tractor wheels (310)kg achieved the less values for each drawbar power, fuel consumption, soil bulk density and Irregularity index of tillage depth as a percentage, and the higher values for soil disturbed volume .

Supply of tractors to business subjects in Poltava region. Problems and perspectives

The development of agricultural production, especially its technical support, requires constant improvement and the introduction of advanced models of mechanization. The relevance of the national and economic problem of the quality of material and technical support of agro-industrial production is substantiated. It is claimed that the fore-casting of quantitative and qualitative indicators of the technical condition indirectly affects the technologies used in the fields, in particular in the Poltava region. The results of statistical analysis of qualitative and quantitative indicators of purchased and registered tractors, which are reflected in the single register for keeping automated rec-ords of tractors of the agricultural machinery registration department of the Main Department of the State Production and Consumer Service in Poltava region for the period from 2018 to 2023, are given. The trends and dynamics of replacing tractors in the region's farms are given and substantiated, and ways of improving the organizational and technical mechanisms for providing tractors to enterprises and individuals of the Poltava region are recommended, taking into account the current challenges caused by the state of war. The organizational, technical and economic mechanisms for updating the tractor fleet of enterprises and private owners - individuals of the Poltava region have been determined. There is a sharp reduction in the dynamics of the number of purchased and registered tractors and tractor equipment in 2022. The beginning of the war led to a sharp reduction of purchased and registered tractors and tractor equipment by more than two times. Studying the dynamics of the ratio of the use of foreign tractors and tractors of domestic production is no less a painful topic for the state. We have a negative trend towards a significant relative increase in the tractor market of the Poltava region of foreign-made tractors and tractor equipment. A situa-tion arose when the number of foreign tractor models in 2022 and most of 2023 exceeded the registration actions for domestically produced tractors by almost three times. The fact that the absence or insufficient number of domestic manufacturers of agricultural machinery, including tractors, leads to export dependence of the market is statistically confirmed. The consequence of this is a significant increase in prices for spare parts and tracts of foreign production

Optimization of the Electronic Control Unit of Electric-Powered Agricultural Vehicles

Agricultural vehicles, such as tractors, combines, and harvesters, are following the trend of commercial vehicles with a transition from diesel to electric propulsion. Seen as an integrated system, a full-electric tractor is a complex machine with many systems that have to be interconnected for efficient functionality; thus, the need for a central control unit arises. The purpose of this article is to present an electronic control unit that interconnects the powertrain, the hydraulic systems, and the auxiliary systems of a full-electric tractor, with an emphasis on optimization through software design. The article describes the hardware of the electronic control unit and the software state diagrams necessary to implement the functions required by the electric tractor. The results of this article show how, through software optimization, the performances of the tractor can be improved, with parameters such as the response time of the various equipment being a useful indicator of such an improvement. Furthermore, the implementation of trip memory and an easy-to-use human–machine interface allows for easy diagnostic of the electric tractor.

Fixed-time generalized super-twisting control for path tracking of autonomous agricultural vehicles considering wheel slipping

Efficient path tracking control for autonomous agricultural vehicles (AAVs) is the key technology for realizing agriculture 4.0 and precision agriculture, which makes smart farms more sustainable, profitable, and eco-friendly. It is well recognized that model nonlinearity, unknown disturbances, and wheel slipping are common problems in practical AAV systems in operation. To tackle these issues and improve the path tracking performance, a novel fixed-time generalized super-twisting control scheme is proposed for AAVs in this paper. First, a fixed-time integral sliding mode surface is designed for the considered vehicle by fusing the lateral offset and heading offset together. Then, an innovative auxiliary system dynamics is constructed to collaborate with the foregoing sliding mode surface, compensating for the adverse effects of wheel slipping effectively. Subsequently, based on the kinematic offset model of AAVs, a new type of generalized super-twisting controller is designed to achieve superior path tracking with robustness. Unlike existing super-twisting controllers, the generalized super-twisting continuous controller can fully eliminate chattering by replacing the previous discontinuous terms with a nonsmooth term. Further, rigorous theoretical analysis is conducted by raising a fresh Lyapunov function to verify the closed-loop control system stability. Finally, extensive field experiments have been carried out to show that the proposed control scheme significantly outperforms typical comparative control schemes.

Consideration of the influences of the driving direction within the calculation of the pitting load-carrying capacity of bevel and hypoid gears

Pitting is, besides scuffing, tooth flank fracture and the phenomenon micropitting, one of the primary failure modes of the flank load-carrying capacity of bevel and hypoid gears. The international standard ISO 10300-2:2014 is widely used for the estimation of the flank load-carrying capacity of bevel and hypoid gears based on operational data and the macrogeometry of the gear set. The calculated safety factors against pitting often show similar values for pinion and wheel. Due to similar safety factors against pitting, the gear is expected to fail as often as the pinion. However, investigations in the field do not confirm this. Initial experimental investigations show an influence of the driven and driving part of the gear set. Within this paper, the phenomenon regarding the driven and driving part of the gear set will be discussed for the first time and the influence parameter will be clarified. Because of the potential for recuperation in electrified agricultural tractors, railroad trains, hybrid and electrical vehicles, this topic is of great importance. In this context an actual calculation approach based on the standard calculation method of the ISO 10300-2:2014 will be presented and verified with test results.

Estimation of Air Pollutant Emissions by Tractor Utilization in Korea

The utilization of tractors is essential because of both the shortage of agricultural labor forces and the rapid aging of farmers in Korean agriculture. Tractors can be classified into two types: a walking tractor called as a power tiller, and a riding tractor. In this study, diesel emission inventories of tractors were established and variations of air pollutants were analyzed with each other using 2011 and 2019 survey data in Korea. Agricultural tractors including walking and riding types, which were categorized into three levels via the rated output power, were the main sources of diesel emissions. The emission inventory including CO, NOx, SOx, TSP(PM10), PM2.5, VOCs, and NH3 were established using a Tier 3 methodology. The total amount of emissions using agricultural tractors was decreased by about 13% from 2011 to 2019. The number of walking tractors were decreased by about 19% in 8 years; on the other hand, that of riding tractors were increased by about 12%. However, the emission reduction is about 48% for walking tractors, and the emission increment is about 5% for riding tractors. Thus, the total emission from agricultural tractors was decreased by about 16% in those periods. It is due to the decrease of 21% and 15% in the hours of use of walking and riding tractors, respectively, in 2019. Walking tractors mainly emit air pollutants from spraying and transporting. Riding tractors emit about 61% of the total air pollutants mainly from soil preparation and transporting operations. The geographic information system (GIS) was used to visualize the distribution of air pollutants in Korea. High-emission generating regions and the changes of emissions over 8 years were clearly seen in the GIS analysis. High air-pollutant emitting regions are mainly located in the western and southern regions of Korea, which have plenty of arable areas compared to other regions in Korea.

Computer vision for unmanned aerial vehicles in agriculture: applications, challenges, and opportunities

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), commonly called drones, have gained significant attention in agriculture due to their potential to revolutionize traditional farming practices. This paper explores the integration of computer vision techniques with UAV technology to enhance agricultural processes. The fusion of these two domains has the potential to provide farmers and agronomists with valuable insights for optimized decision-making. The primary focus of this research is to showcase the various applications of computer vision for UAVs in agriculture. The paper begins by presenting an overview of the challenges faced by modern agriculture, such as resource optimization, crop monitoring, disease detection, and yield prediction. It then delves into the technological advancements in UAVs and their suitability for addressing these challenges.

Decision Support System for autonomous vehicle maintenance management

Autonomous vehicles are complex objects equipped with the tools for monitoring the technical condition and transmitting data for diagnostics and prediction. The design of new models of autonomous and robotic vehicles is inextricably linked with the development of a maintenance system. The efficient functioning of the maintenance system is ensured by the use of intelligent technologies and digital twins. The article proposes an approach to designing a decision support system for the maintenance and repair of a fleet of autonomous vehicles. The decision support system is focused on robotic agricultural vehicles. The proposed structure of the system is of a general nature and can be used in transport and logistics enterprises in various sectors of the economy. The general architecture of the maintenance system is presented, including the neuro-digital twin of the vehicle, the analytics unit, simulation models of operation processes, and service centers. The components of the neuro-digital twin are digital twins of car units, a knowledge base, domain ontology, artificial neural networks, and a team of experts. The proposed approach is based on a combination of intelligent technologies and simulation modeling in collaboration with a team of experts. A set of original simulation models for the operation of a fleet of autonomous vehicles has been developed. New models based on stochastic timed colored Petri nets are proposed to analyze the processes during the autonomous vehicle operation. The developed decision support system can be used both at the stage of virtual commissioning and in the real operation of autonomous vehicles.