Irrigation Farming Research Articles

Effects of Challawa and Tiga dams on the physicochemical water qualities of the below-dam sections of Challawa and Kano rivers, Nigeria

River impoundment resulting from dam construction leads to substantial alterations in the seasonal flow pattern as well as the physical and chemical qualities of the downstream water. This study assessed the effects of Challawa Gorge-dam and Tiga Dam on physicochemical parameters of surface water in the below-dam sections of Challawa and Kano Rivers, with emphasis on seasonal variations. Eight physicochemical water parameters were assessed at six stations over six months, distinguishing between reservoir and below-dam sections. In situ measurements included temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, electrical conductivity (EC), salinity, and total dissolved solids (TDS) while alkalinity and hardness were determined ex situ using titrimetric methods. Significant differences (p< 0.05), were observed between reservoir and below-dam sections of the two rivers in some parameters, the others exhibited no significant differences (p>0.05). Surface water temperature ranged from 26.90 to 30.10oC and 26.60 to 28.00oC for Challawa and Kano Rivers, respectively with significant differences (p< 0.05) during the dry and wet seasons in Challawa River. Decreasing water temperature at the below-dam sections was observed during the dry season and attributed to hypolimnetic water discharge from the reservoirs. Elevated atmospheric temperature in the dry hot season increases water loss through evaporation and consequently leads to increased concentration of EC, TD, and salinity in the reservoirs. A plausible reason for the higher concentrations of these parameters could be the non-point discharge from surrounding irrigation farms. Higher DO during the dry season was partly attributed to higher rates of photosynthetic production of oxygen as a result of elevated solar radiation, atmospheric temperature, and nutrient related parameters during the period. The variability exhibited by all the parameters in all the sections of the two rivers indicated that the parameters are within favourable ranges suitable for the survival and development of aquatic biota and fit as drinking water for man. Thus, the findings of this study considered water in all sections of the rivers fit for the development and sustainability of freshwater biota. The study concluded by recommending the need for further investigation on the effect of these dams on the distribution and abundance of different aquatic biota in the below-dam sections to guide in the adequate fisheries management measures. Key words: Impoundment, reservoir, hypolimnetic, downstream, dam, discharge, physicochemical, season

Design and Development of IoT Smart Drip Irrigation and Fertigation Prototype for Small and Medium Scale Farmers. Acase Study of Tomato Farmers in Tanzania

Abstract In Tanzania, almost 30% of the farm land are practicing traditional irrigation farming while around 60% rely on the seasonal rains which are only once every year. This resulted to inefficiency agriculture practices due to the absence of real-time weather data that in cooperates plants characteristics on seasonal growth for better yield. Studies have shown that, only about 10% of the crop caltivated land in Tanzania are farming using modern irrigation practices which include drip and smart irrigation systems. To address these challenges for the purpose of improving crop yield, there is a need to research, design and develop an integrated farming system that will monitor crop environmental conditions and nutritional requirements for the purpose of improving harvest and reduce food shortages. Based on this gap, the current research is aiming to design and develop a smart drip irrigation and fertigation system, using Internet of Things (IoT) technology. Due to the availability of many crops in Tanzania, this study will specifically focusing on tomato farming because they are commonly used as food crop as well cash crops in many parts of Tanzania. This innovative idea integrates sensors and real-time data analysis capabilities to enhance precision in water conservation and nutrient management. Studies have shown that tomato crops thrive best in the temperature range between 20 and 30 ℃ with humidity content above 60% and soil pH value between 6.2 and 6.8. This suitable weather condition for tomato growth is available in many parts of the Tropical countries like Tanzania. The implementation of this research project is based on design and develop a prototype for smart drip irrigation and fertigation system to be used for small and medium farmers in Tanzania. The culmination of these efforts aims to modernize Tanzanian agriculture by improving the efficiency and sustainability of farming practices. The project underscores the significance of precision agriculture techniques in optimizing crop yield and resource utilization. It emphasizes the potential of IoT—driven solutions in addressing longstanding agricultural challenges. The developed of a smart irrigation and fertigation system not only offers a promising avenue for enhancing agricultural productivity but also contributes to environmental conservation efforts through more efficient resource management.

The Social, Economic and Cultural Life of The Population of The Syrdarya Region in The Middle Ages

The text offers an insightful look into the medieval Ustrushona region, shedding light on its complex administrative, economic, and cultural life. The region, located in the fertile lands of Central Asia, had a thriving agricultural economy, with a focus on irrigation farming that produced cotton, cereals, and fruits. In addition to agriculture, livestock farming flourished in thesteppe and desert areas, supporting the livelihoods of the population.

YIELD POTENTIALS OF RICE VARIETIES UNDER IRRIGATED LOWLAND IN COTE DIVOIRE GUINEA SAVANNAH ZONE

Cote dIvoire every year resorts to rice imports to cover its populations needs, due to significant shortfall in national production. This study aimed to assess the yield potentials of 20 rice varieties in irrigated rice farming to enhance national production. The 20 lines were evaluated in a split-plot design with 3 replications and 2 factors. The mainplotwas variety group with 2 levels (improved and local), while the sub-plot was the variety type (cultivar). NPK fertilizer (15-15-15) was applied as basal dressing at 200 g/15 m2 before transplanting. Urea (CO(NH2)2, 46% N) was applied as top dressing at rates of 14 g/15 m2 at tillering and 19 g/15 m2 at flowering. Analysis of variance showed significant differences at the 5% level for grain yield (GY), straw yield (SY), total dry matter (TDM), harvest index (HI), and agronomic efficiency of fertilizer (AE). Furthermore, these analyses revealed that local rice varieties, Koite and GT11, yielded around 5 tha-1, approximately two-thirds of the hybrids yields. However, the Danane variety had one of the lowest yields with 1.5 tha-1. The hybrids AR043H, AR034H, and AR051H were statistically identical and the top three in grain yield.Furthermore, the varieties AR043H, AR034H, and AR051H could be recommended to increase rice in Cote dIvoire. These results constitute a significant step in the search for genotypes suited to lowland rice cultivation with high yield potential.

Prospects and challenges of drone technology in sustainable agriculture

Drones have emerged as a viable precision agriculture technology that can help achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs) by enhancing sustainable farming practices, increasing food security and reducing environmental impact. This review paper aims to thoroughly examine the various applications of drone technology, including crop health monitoring, pesticide and fertilizer spraying, weed control and data-driven decision-making for farm optimization. It emphasizes the role of drones in precision spraying, promoting targeted interventions and minimizing environmental impact compared to conventional methods. Drones play a vital role in weed management and crop health assessment. The study emphasizes the relevance of data collected by drones for decision-making concerning irrigation, fertilization and overall farm management. However, using Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in agriculture faces challenges caused by batteries and their life, flight time and connectivity, particularly in remote areas. There are legal challenges whereby regulatory frameworks and restrictions are present in different regions that affect the operation of drones. With the help of continuous research and development initiatives, the challenges depicted above could be solved and the fullest potential of drones can be tapped for achieving sustainable agriculture.

Modeling of PV System Supported Intelligent Irrigation System in Iraq-Mosul Region

In this study, Matlab/Simulink is used to create a smart irrigation system that uses electricity generated by photovoltaic cells. In order to supply 90000 liters of water every irrigation period to meet the daily needs of farm irrigation, the system is intended for a rural location of Mosul city in the west. According to calculations, the necessary amount of water can be drawn from a 50 m water head well using a solar cell array that provides a submersible BLDC pump with a power of 1400 W. Employing smart irrigation demonstrated that the system's efficiency was increased and that it was more affordable than a standard pumping system. It is advised that Iraq, one of the solar-richest nations, employ smart irrigation systems, even though it now lacks energy.

Willingness to Pay for Improved Irrigation

Irrigation farming is essential for all-season farming in the areas that usually depend on seasonal rainfall, like Southwest Nigeria. This study assesses farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for sprinkler irrigation systems in Oyo and Osun States and the socioeconomic determinants of such investment decisions. Using a multi-stage sampling method, data were collected from 476 farmers through structured questionnaires using the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and analyzed using descriptive analysis and logit regression. Results show that 75.42% of farmers are willing to pay for sprinkler systems with an average WTP of ₦246,159.7 per acre per season. Key positive influences on WTP include age, access to credit, and cultivation of water-intensive crops like fruit and vegetables, while secondary occupations, farming experience, and cereal production negatively impact WTP. The fit is very good, as evidenced by a pseudo-R² of 0.92. The study recommends increasing the availability of appropriate credit through the Bank of Agriculture and commercial banks and flexible payment options. Also, educational programs highlighting the benefits of irrigation could encourage traditional farmers to adopt modern practices. The results show that these interventions need financial and knowledge inputs to improve sustainable agriculture and food security in Nigeria.

Combined Effects of Deficit Irrigation and Biostimulation on Water Productivity in Table Grapes.

Biostimulation and precision irrigation are strategies that increase the sustainability of agriculture, and both have been widely studied in table grapes, but their interaction is a new approach for viticulture. The objective of this field trial was to assess the physiological effects of water deficit on table grapes pretreated for two consecutive years with five different biostimulation programs. Therefore, during the first year, vines were preconditioned with biostimulants composed of microorganisms, seaweed, and plant extracts and compared to an untreated control. During the second year, the same biostimulation treatments were evaluated under two different irrigation schedules: (i) farmer irrigation (FI), according to a farmer's criteria; and (ii) a deficit irrigation program, precision irrigation (PI), in which irrigation water was reduced from the post-veraison period to harvest, setting a threshold for allowable soil water depletion of 10% with respect to field capacity in order to minimize water leaching. The water inputs in the treatments under PI were reduced by 30% with respect to the FI treatment. While the deficit irrigation treatment clearly affected the plant water status indicators, biostimulation enhanced the root colonization by mycorrhizae and showed a trend of increased new root density. The combined effect of biostimulation and PI was shown to be an efficient strategy for optimizing the available resources, promoting the yield precocity.

Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis

Abstract Sugarcane is an essential commodity in Indonesia. However, climate change negatively affects the sugarcane production efficiency. This study aims to measure the technical efficiency of sugarcane farming using a bootstrap data envelopment analysis (DEA) approach, compare the efficiency of irrigated and rain-fed sugarcane farming, and determine the factors affecting the technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia. Primary data were collected from 451 sugarcane farmers during the 2020–2021 planting season. The results indicate that the “bias-corrected” technical efficiency scores of the single- and double-bootstrap approach (0.624 and 0.561) were lower than that of conventional DEA (0.714). The efficiency score of irrigated sugarcane farms (0.593) was higher than that of rain-fed farms (0.529). Moreover, the farmers’ age, household size, dependency, farming experience, training, subsidies, crop diversification, and access to irrigation impacted sugarcane farming’s technical efficiency. Improvement of 1% in training, irrigation access, and subsidies increased the technical efficiency by 0.034, 0.032, and 0.030, respectively. This strategy is expected to enhance the productivity and technical efficiency and reduce the poverty in rural households in East Java.

Furrow Irrigation system in Ethiopia, a limitation in the rational use of water in agriculture and its performance

Ethiopia is among the many developing nations that prefer surface irrigation over underground and pressured irrigation systems due to its lower cost and energy consumption. This paper reviews the effects of furrow features, including length, flow rate, and influence on farm water productivity and yield gap. The furrow irrigation method can be highly effective when used correctly, but it can also be quite ineffective when used incorrectly. High efficiency can be attained if the design parameters of a furrow irrigation system, such as field length and flow rate, infiltration characteristics, and field slope, as well as its operational and management parameters, such as application depth, and frequency, are properly maintained. Over-irrigation in a furrow irrigation system can lead to a variety of detrimental consequences on crop productivity and the environment, including water runoff, reduced efficiency, deep percolation, waste of energy and resources, crop damage, and increased salinity. Therefore, checking the moisture content of the soil frequently to prevent over-irrigation by visual examination or soil moisture monitors, carefully planning furrows depending on soil type, crop requirements, and topography as well as gathering runoff water and reusing it improved farm irrigation water management in furrow irrigation system to reduce the yield gap and increase water productivity.

Influence of diverse pasture species and reduced nitrogen fertiliser inputs on soil health on four irrigated Canterbury dairy pastures

Maintaining and improving the health of pastoral soils is important to enable the provision of ecosystem services for sustainable production. We investigate the impacts of increasing pasture species diversity and reducing nitrogen (N) fertiliser inputs on pasture productivity and the flow on effects for soil health on four irrigated dairy farms in Canterbury. The soils had generally good health prior to pastures being resown. During the establishment of both simple and diverse pastures there was a decline in Olsen P, soil organic carbon (C), total N and potentially available N to below target levels. In the year following pasture establishment there was no difference in herbage accumulation between the simple and more diverse pastures under irrigation. For both simple and diverse pastures, grass species contributed approximately 50%, legumes 15%, and herbs 20% of the total dry matter harvested. Although there was a reduction in pasture growth as N fertiliser inputs were reduced, legume content did not decline significantly and differences in soil health were not observed at this stage. Despite the farms being intensive dairy systems, the data suggests good soil health prior to pasture establishment. Hence maintaining soil health as well as its restoration following disturbance present opportunities for these farms.

ASSESSMENT AND TECHNICAL CONSTRAINT IDENTIFICATION OF SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION PUMP IN ARSI AND EAST SHEWA ZONE, OROMIA

Efficient irrigation begins with properly installed and maintained pumps, motors, and engines. For this, the study was conducted on potential irrigation pump users of the Arsi and East Shewa zones with the objective of identifying the technical constraints of smallholder irrigation pump users. Doddota from Arsi and Dugda and Bora woreda from the East Shewa zone were selected. 211 samples size from 2321 pump users were used for data collection. The constraints listed by respondents, like pump damage, pump cost, long priming, and fuel, were the most common bottlenecks in pump irrigation schemes. Pump damage was positively correlation with use of un-recommended suction and delivery head, age of pump, long priming time and continues operation time but negatively correlation with pump maintenance, experience in irrigation farming and educational level of the household. Long priming and fuel consumption was positively (+Ve) correlation with use of un-recommended suction and delivery head, age of pump, operation time and pump size. From the existing pump type respondent responses, KAMA pumps were highly available on the market, vulnerable to damage, and had sufficient spare parts with values of 60.66, 64.45 and 44.08%, respectively. The lowest were Cushion their values were 1.42%, 3.32% and 3.78%, respectively. The respondents also reply, due to absence of governmental pump maintaining organization, cost of maintenance at local and private garage were very expensive (68.25%) and expensive (26.07%). This makes another problem on small holder irrigation pump. Therefore, it is recommended to government to add pump maintaining structure at engineering center which serves' closely to scheme users and providing regular training on maintenance checklist. It is also recommended for engineering and socio-economic researchers to conduct research collaboratively to assess the gap frequently for other kebele pump user and technical performance evaluation for pump that have problems.

Analysis of co-operative irrigation farming and household food security in Africa: A PRISMA model approach

This study provides a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the relationship between co-operative irrigation farming and household food security in Africa. The research aims to identify key studies, authors, and thematic clusters, analyse the geographical distribution of research efforts, and evaluate the impact of co-operative irrigation farming on food security indicators. Utilizing the PRISMA model, data were systematically gathered from peer-reviewed publications indexed in the Dimensions database, focusing on materials published between 2019 and 2023. The study employed both bibliometric and descriptive-quantitative methodologies to analyse the data. The results reveal a significant positive impact of co-operative irrigation farming on improving household food security across various regions in Africa. The findings highlight the need for targeted policy interventions and sustainable agricultural practices that support co-operative irrigation efforts. A growing scholarly attention toward co-operative irrigation farming and household food security in recent years reveals a potentiality in finding a sustainable solution to food insecurity challenge. These insights are essential for shaping future research and informing policies aimed at enhancing food security through co-operative farming models in the African context.

The fluidity of empire: hydraulics of neo-assyrian canal systems in relation to their possible uses

The Neo-Assyrian empire offers a clear example of the key relationship between imperial power and water management. Irrigated landscapes under the direct impulse of the Assyrian state were important during its imperial heydays of the late 9th to 7th centuries BC. In the very heartland of the empire (the “Assur-Nineveh-Arbela Triangle” this imperialization of the landscape was the most dramatic, with large canals, aqueducts, and dams redirecting water flows toward the urban areas. Our hydraulic analysis of the canal network connecting Nineveh to its northeastern hinterlands explores how large-scale imperial investments generated imperialized landscapes that marked a substantial divergence from the preexisting conditions in terms of shape and sizes of canal infrastructure. One key question is whether Sennacherib’s hydraulic accomplishments provided meaningful changes to the agricultural economy of the region surrounding Nineveh, especially whether the canals allowed shifting the focus from extensive dry farming to intensive irrigation farming. Our hydraulic modelling shows that Assyrian water controllers and users would benefit from irrigation on the fields upstream of Nineveh. However, they would not benefit automatically from more control of flows in and from the system. Our results do not provide a single, definitive answer, given the uncertainty in data and the many options to model and understand the water systems, but especially for inflows below reference levels, the importance of controlled irrigation is evident. This suggests that irrigation will have been very likely to increase yields throughout the canal area.

Improving the performance of agricultural temporary water markets: The role of technology-based and transaction-based subsidies

Water markets are increasingly advocated for combating agricultural water scarcity. However, in developing countries’ arid and semiarid regions, water market performance is greatly weakened by the insufficient demand-side and supply-side driving forces stemming from farmers’ limited awareness and capacity. Building an agent-based model and taking Hami City, Xinjiang in northwestern China as the case study area, this study explores the roles of technology-based and transaction-based subsidies in adjusting market driving forces and promoting the performance of agricultural temporary water markets. The results show that, without government support, water transactions are limited to only 8.054×103 m3, which can hardly protect agricultural interests. However, with improved market driving forces, water transactions can be substantially increased—potentially exceeding 100×103 m3—by technology-based and transaction-based subsidies This effect is particularly evident when the technology-based subsidy induces water shortages for recipients (e.g., retrieve 5820 m3/ha water entitlements) and its acceptance rate is below 50 %, and when the transaction-based subsidy approaches the average opportunity costs of selling water for traditional irrigation farmers (0.462 RMB/m3). Combinations of technology-based and transaction-based subsidies prove to be more cost-effective in improving water market performance and protecting agricultural benefits, owing to the enhanced market driving forces and the promoting effect of transaction-based subsidies on the implementation of technology-based subsidies. This promoting effect also helps to alleviate fiscal burdens. Furthermore, results indicate that irrigation technology promotion and water markets are complementary, and their dynamic interaction can facilitate the gradual transformation of irrigation practices in arid and semiarid regions of developing countries.

Influence of Organic Nutrient Sources on Nutrient, Quality and Yield Parameters of Vegetable Cluster Bean

Aim: The experiment was taken up to study the influence of various organic nutrient sources on soil nutrient availability and their uptake and also on quality parameters of vegetable cluster bean. Place and Duration of Study: the study was conducted at irrigated wetland farms, TNAU, Coimbatore during the year 2018. Methodology: The RBD (randomized complete block design) design was adopted and replicated thrice. The total number of treatments were 12 with various basal applications of organic manures namely farm yard manure, vermicompost, humic acid, ghanjeevamrutham and also foliar spray combinations namely panchagavya and banana pseudo stem sap. The standard recommended cultural practices of organic farming were followed for all treatments except fertilizer application and synthetic chemical use. Results: The data revealed that soil chemical properties viz., pH, EC and organic carbon were not significantly influenced by various organic nutrient sources. Significantly, higher values of N, P and K availability in soil and their uptake by cluster bean crop and crude protein content, crude fiber, ascorbic acid, moistures percentage in cluster bean pods were recorded with 100 % recommended dose of fertilizer and 2% foliar spray of TNAU pulse wonder. However, organic treatments were on par with inorganic treatments for all the nutrient, quality and yield parameters. Conclusion: Organic treatments like organic farmers practice and FYM along with Panchagavya were recommended to improve nutrient use efficiency and quality of yield, eventually to benefit farmers and complete agricultural ecosystem in terms of profit and sustainability, respectively.

Estimating irrigation water use from remotely sensed evapotranspiration data: Accuracy and uncertainties at field, water right, and regional scales

Irrigated agriculture is the dominant user of water globally, but most water withdrawals are not monitored or reported. As a result, it is largely unknown when, where, and how much water is used for irrigation. Here, we evaluated the ability of remotely sensed evapotranspiration (ET) data, integrated with other datasets, to calculate irrigation water withdrawals and applications in an intensively irrigated portion of the United States. We compared irrigation calculations based on an ensemble of satellite-driven ET models from OpenET with reported groundwater withdrawals from hundreds of farmer irrigation application records and a statewide flowmeter database at three spatial scales (field, water right group, and management area). At the field scale, we found that ET-based calculations of irrigation agreed best with reported irrigation when the OpenET ensemble mean was aggregated to the growing season timescale (bias = 1.6–4.9 %, R2 = 0.53–0.74), and agreement between calculated and reported irrigation was better for multi-year averages than for individual years. At the water right group scale, linking pumping wells to specific irrigated fields was the primary source of uncertainty. At the management area scale, calculated irrigation exhibited similar temporal patterns as flowmeter data but tended to be positively biased with more interannual variability. Disagreement between calculated and reported irrigation was strongly correlated with annual precipitation, and calculated and reported irrigation agreed more closely after statistically adjusting for annual precipitation. The selection of an ET model was also an important consideration, as variability across ET models was larger than the potential impacts of conservation measures employed in the region. From these results, we suggest key practices for working with ET-based irrigation data that include accurately accounting for changes in soil moisture, deep percolation, and runoff; careful verification of irrigated area and well-field linkages; and conducting application-specific evaluations of uncertainty.

Microcystin-degrading bacteria reduce bioaccumulation in Fragaria vulgaris and enhance fruit yield and quality

In Morocco, red fruit production has thrived, primarily utilizing hydroponic methods to control crops, increase fruit yield and quality, and avoid soil-related problems. However, the irrigation of these expansive hydroponic farms relies heavily on water sourced from dams, many of which are contaminated with Microcystins (MCs). To address this contamination issue, ongoing research is focused on discovering effective and cost-efficient biological solutions for eliminating MCs. In this study, we isolate and identify bacterial strains capable of degrading MCs, evaluate the rate of degradation, and investigate how soil inoculated with these bacteria affects the accumulation of MCs in plant tissue. The partial 16S rRNA analyses of three bacterial sequences were conducted, identifying them through NCBI as follows: Ensifer sp. (B1) isolated from soil, Shinella sp. (B2) from a cyanobacterial bloom, and Stutzerimonas sp. (B3) from water. These bacteria exhibited the ability to degrade MCs, with approximately 34.75%, 73.75%, and 30.1% of the initial concentration (20 µg/L) being removed after a 6-day period for B1, B2, and B3, respectively. Moreover, strawberry plants were cultivated hydroponically in a greenhouse for a duration of 90 days. These plants were subjected to extracts of cyanobacteria containing 10 and 20 µg/L of Microcystins (MC), as well as water from an artificial lake contaminated with MC, both with and without the presence of isolated bacterial strains. Among these strains, Shinella sp. exhibited the highest efficacy in mitigating MC accumulation. Specifically, it resulted in a reduction of approximately 1.159 µg of MC per kilogram of root dry weight, leading to complete elimination in the leaves and fruits. The findings also indicated that the inoculation of perlite with the three MC-degrading bacterial strains significantly enhanced growth, photosynthetic pigments, yield, biochemical constituents, and quality attributes of strawberries (p ≤ 0.05). These promising outcomes suggest the potential of this approach for addressing the adverse impacts of crops irrigated with MC-contaminated water in future agricultural practices.

Multiple soil health indicators are responsive to summer cover crops on an irrigated organic farm

While cover crops (CC) are known to enhance soil health, outcomes are often subtle and confined to a shallow surface soil layer. We assessed 15 soil health indicators over three CC trials with a 15-species Blend polyculture, a Mustard biculture (white ( Sinapsis alba L.) and brown ( Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.) mustards), Buckwheat ( Fagopyrum esculentum Moench), and Faba bean ( Vicia faba L.) monocultures, and a Weedy fallow (no CC, weeds allowed to grow) on an organic farm in southern Alberta. Soil sampling times included (i) summer pretermination; (ii) fall post-termination; and (iii) spring post-termination of CC. Twelve of 15 soil health indicators showed significant effects of CC treatment for at least one sampling time. Soil organic C (SOC) ranked highest with 80% of sampling times showing significant CC effects. N-related indicators (total N (TN), nitrate-N)) were also quite sensitive, being significantly affected by CC treatment at 60% of sampling times. Three soil health indicators (acid phosphomonoesterase (AcP), wet aggregate stability, and free-living nematodes (FLN)) were consistent in their nonresponses to CC treatment at all sampling times. Comparing CC treatments with a Weedy fallow, showed that not all enhancements of soil health were explained by inclusion of a CC, with Weedy fallow as effective for some indicators. A polyculture Blend significantly enhanced soil health over a monoculture CC or Weedy fallow in 46% of instances of soil health indicator improvement. While CC led to enhancement of soil health, results were not always consistent, being contingent on specific indicators.

Effectiveness of behaviour change interventions to reduce the risk of faecal contamination in urban irrigated vegetable value chains – applying the COM-B behavioural framework

ABSTRACT In low- and middle-income countries, inadequate sanitation results in faecal contamination of the water used by urban farmers for irrigation. Consumers of raw contaminated vegetables run the risk of developing diarrhoeal diseases and helminth infections, which are a leading cause of under-five mortality and impact the well-being and productivity of millions of adults. This review identifies the evidence base for assessing which factors determine the success and/or failure of interventions that aim to manage the risk of faecal contamination in the urban irrigated vegetable value chain. We carried out a systematic search of the literature from the perspective of the COM-B behaviour framework (Capability + Opportunity + Motivation = Behaviour). Our results reveal that most interventions address stakeholders’ opportunity or capability to adopt safe practices without adequately considering their motivation. Interventions often focus on one sector rather than on the whole value chain (sanitation, agriculture, trade, consumption). To effectively change hygiene and food safety practices in the urban irrigated vegetable value chain, stakeholders’ intrinsic motivations need to be identified. Where WHO's multi-barrier approach is the best option, we recommend building on local multistakeholder platforms and adopting a behaviour change framework to support the largely technical change from farm to fork.