Farm Children Research Articles

Agricultural injuries among farm and non-farm children and adolescents in Alberta, Canada.

Understanding of the specific risk of agricultural injury sustained by different populations of children and adolescents is needed for effective safety intervention. To compare the rates and patterns of agricultural injury incidence (fatal and non-fatal injury) between farm and non-farm children less than 18 years of age in Alberta, Canada. A total of 115 378 children (five subgroups: two groups of farm children and three groups of non-farm children) in Alberta were followed from 1999 to 2010 to examine injury incidence using the linkage of three administrative health databases. A recurrent event survival analysis using Cox proportional hazards regression was carried out. A total of 1 849 agricultural injury episodes (1 616 emergency department visits, 225 hospitalizations, and 8 deaths) were identified from 1999 to 2010. The age- and gender-adjusted rate (per 100 000 person years) of agricultural injury was 672.3 for rural-living farm children, 369.4 for urban-living farm children, 180.2 for rural non-First Nations (FN) children, 64.4 for rural FN children, and 23.7 for urban children in descending order. Specific strategies for different children's populations to prevent agricultural injuries and to extend agricultural injury controls to non-farming populations are needed.

An approach to the asthma-protective farm effect by geocoding: Good farms and better farms.

The highly consistent association of growing up on a farm with a reduced asthma risk has so far been attributed to direct farm exposure. In contrast, geographic determinants of the larger environment have never been assessed. In this study, the effects of proximity to farms and environmental variables in relation to the residential address on asthma and atopy were assessed. Addresses of 2265 children of the Bavarian arm of the GABRIELA study were converted into geocodes. Proximity to the nearest cow farm was calculated, and environmental characteristics were derived from satellite data or terrestrial monitoring. Bacterial diversity in mattress dust samples was assessed in 501 children by sequencing of the 16S rRNA amplicons. Logistic regression models were used to calculate associations between outcomes and exposure variables. Asthma and atopy were inversely associated with the presence of a farm within a radius of maximum 100m. The environmental variables greenness, tree cover, soil sealing, altitude, air pollution differed not only between farm and non-farm children but also between farm children with and without another farm nearby. The latter distinction revealed strong associations with characteristics of traditional farms including a broader diversity of microbial exposure, which mainly contributed to the protective effect on asthma. In non-farm children, the protective effect of a farm nearby was completely explained by consumption of farm milk. Clustering of farms within a neighborhood of 100m is strongly associated with the protective effect on asthma and may represent a more traditional style of farming with broader microbial exposure.

“It's Definitely a Good Time to Be a Farmer”: Understanding the Changing Dynamics of Successor Creation in Late Modern Society

AbstractThis article considers the implications of the wider systemic shift from modernity to late modernity for the process of intergenerational farm transfer. The article argues that the shift from the collective to the individual, indicative of late modern society, is particularly pertinent in the context of intergenerational transfer, which has long been rooted in collective thinking. Drawing on the perspectives of incumbent farmers and potential successors, the article utilizes results from semistructured interviews with 29 farmers and 19 potential successors in Devon, England. Using a thematic analysis, the article provides a nuanced understanding of the impact of the systemic shift and the associated emphasis on the individual on successor identification. Although the article reaffirms understanding of successor creation as a collective process, determined by factors such as gender and birth order, it also identifies an emergent cohort of younger potential successors, for whom succession was the outcome of an evaluation of farming as a career. It concludes that, within the case study area, modernization is changing the way in which farm children are identifying themselves as “the successor.” The article suggests how this increasingly judicious approach to succession leaves reproduction of the family farm increasingly vulnerable to negative externalities.

The Prevalence of Disabilities in the U.S. Farm Population

Abstract. Health limitations and disabilities among farmers, farmworkers, and farm family members may have implications on their day-to-day activities and well-being as well as the farm business, but little is known about the extent of these limitations and disabilities. Using the U.S. Census Bureau’s American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) files from 2008 to 2016, the following questions were examined: what is the prevalence of disability in the overall farm population; what is the prevalence of health difficulties and disability among farmers, farmworkers, and farm family members; and do farmer and farmworker disability prevalence rates vary over time, by state, gender, or race/ethnicity. Finally, the effects of demographic factors were estimated on the likelihood that farmers and farmworkers might experience a disability. The findings of this study indicated that the disability rate in the farm population was 12.9%. On average, almost two out of ten farmers (19.2%) and nearly one out of ten farmworkers (9.0%) had a disability. One in 25 farm family children (4.2%, ages 6 to 17) and slightly more than two in 25 farm family adults (10.5%) had a disability. Keywords: Cognitive difficulty, Disability, Farm children, Farmer, Farm household, Farmworker, Hearing difficulty, Independent living difficulty, Physical difficulty, Self-care difficulty, Vision difficulty.

Household food production is positively associated with dietary diversity and intake of nutrient-dense foods for older preschool children in poorer families: Results from a nationally-representative survey in Nepal.

BackgroundNutrition-sensitive interventions supporting enhanced household food production have potential to improve child dietary quality. However, heterogeneity in market access may cause systematic differences in program effectiveness depending on household wealth and child age. Identifying these effect modifiers can help development agencies specify and target their interventions.ObjectiveThis study investigates mediating effects of household wealth and child age on links between farm production and child diets, as measured by production and intake of nutrient-dense food groups.MethodsTwo rounds (2013 and 2014) of nationally representative survey data (n = 5,978 observations) were used to measure production and children’s dietary intake, as well as a household wealth index and control variables, including breastfeeding. Novel steps used include measuring production diversity in terms of both species grown and food groups grown, as well as testing for mediating effects of family wealth and age of child.ResultsWe find significant associations between child dietary diversity and agricultural diversity in terms of diversity of food groups and of species grown, especially for older children in poorer households, and particularly for fruits and vegetables, dairy and eggs. With each additional food group produced, log-odds of meeting minimum dietary diversity score (≥4) increase by 0.25 (p = 0.01) for children aged 24–59 months. For younger children aged 18–23 months there is a similar effect size but only in the poorest two quintiles of household wealth, and for infants 6–18 months we find no correlation between production and intake in most models.ConclusionsChild dietary intake is associated with the composition of farm production, most evident among older preschool children and in poorer households. To improve the nutrition of infants, other interventions are needed; and for relatively wealthier households, own farm production may displace market purchases, which could attenuate the impact of household production on child diets.

Health and Well-Being Among Young People From Canadian Farms: Associations With a Culture of Risk-Taking.

To determine whether patterns of adolescent risk behavior in rural populations, and especially farm populations, are associated with negative indicators of adolescent health and well-being, beyond an established association between risk-taking and injury. The study base was Cycle 7 (2014) of the Canadian Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children study. Children aged 11-16 years (n = 2,565; 2,533 weighted) who reported living or working on farms were matched within schools in a 1:1 ratio with other rural children. We related a scale describing engagement in multiple risk behavior to a series of indicators of adolescent health and well-being. Farm children, particularly male farm children, showed the highest levels of risk behavior. Multiple risk behavior was strongly and consistently associated with negative indicators of general health, mental health (life satisfaction, psychosomatic symptoms), and academic performance in all subpopulations. Adolescent risk behavior in rural populations, and especially farm populations, is common and associated with a variety of negative indicators of adolescent health and well-being. We speculate that the origins of this risk-taking lifestyle surround cultural definitions of self and identity, which have both protective and negative effects.

Asthmatic farm children show increased CD3+ CD8low T-cells compared to non-asthmatic farm children

Several studies report an important role of CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells in atopy. Farm children show protection against atopy development, partly explained by CD4+ T-cell subtypes. Additional effects of CD8+ T-cells are unknown being investigated in this study within the PASTURE/EFRAIM birth cohort in PBMCs from farming and non-farming 6-year-old (N=76) German children. CD3+CD8+CD25+ T-cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. Genotyping of 17q21 locus-SNPs associated with childhood asthma was performed. No differences in CD8+ T-cell subsets were seen between farmers and non-farmers regardless of asthma. Among farm children, asthmatics displayed increased CD3+CD8low(CD25+) T-cells compared to non-asthmatics. Asthmatic farm children exhibited a lower PI-induced stimulatory capacity of CD3+CD8low(CD25+) cells and a lower IFN-γ secretion than non-asthmatic farm children. Among farm children with GSDMB and ORMDL3 risk alleles, asthmatics displayed higher CD3+CD8low cells than non-asthmatics. Our data indicates a specific role of CD8low T-cells in asthmatic farm children.

Impact of sleep on injury risk among rural children.

To examine sleep patterns in a large cohort of rural children and explore the association between sleep patterns and injury occurrence. Cross-sectional analyses of the baseline survey from a prospective cohort study (2012 to 2017) was conducted with 46 rural schools in Saskatchewan, Canada who distributed surveys to parents of 2275 rural dwelling farm and nonfarm children aged 0 to 17 years. Parents reported child sleep characteristics and farm or nonfarm injury in the previous calendar year. Multivariable log-binomial regression examined associations between sleep characteristics and injury risk. There was a significant trend of decreasing sleep duration with increasing age (P-trend < 0.001). Short sleep duration on weekdays (RR: 2.14; 95% CI: 1.25 to 3.66) and sleep debt (RR: 1.89; 95% CI: 1.21 to 2.95) increased injury risk in school-age children (7 to 12 years) but not in teens. A nearly fivefold increase in injury risk was identified among school-age children reporting all sleep problems (RR: 4.99; 95% CI: 1.99 to 12.50). Snoring in teens (13 to 17 years), often a symptom of obstructive sleep apnea, was associated with increased injury risk (RR: 1.98; 95% CI: 1.17 to 3.33). There were no statistically significant associations identified between sleep characteristics and injury risk in preschool children. Injuries to rural children are an important public health concern. This study highlights the impact of sleep problems on risk for injury among rural children. These findings are discussed in light of the recent American Academy of Pediatrics Technical Report on Insufficient Sleep in Adolescents and Young Adults.

Umweltmikrobiom

Es gibt immer mehr Hinweise aus epidemiologischen und tierexperimentellen Studien, dass das Mikrobiom ein wichtiger Faktor fur die Entstehung von Asthma bronchiale und Allergien sein konnte. Diese Studien beruhen auf neuen DNA-basierten Sequenzierungstechniken, die einen tiefen Einblick in die mikrobielle Vielfalt in unserer Umwelt und auf bzw. in unseren Korperoberflachen erlauben. Das Umweltmikrobiom in Innenraumen wird zu einem grosen Teil aus der auseren Umwelt definiert, aber zu einem wesentlichen Teil auch durch das Mikrobiom seiner humanen und tierischen Einwohner bestimmt. Dass das Umweltmikrobiom eine wesentliche Rolle bei der Entstehung von Asthma und Allergien spielen kann, geht am deutlichsten aus den Bauernstudien hervor. Diese haben wiederholt einen erheblichen Schutz vor der Entstehung dieser Krankheiten bei den Kindern gezeigt, die eine hohe mikrobielle Exposition aufweisen. Dabei hat es den Anschein, dass es nicht einzelne Keime sind, die dies bewirken, sondern vielmehr ein mikrobieller Cocktail aus Umweltbakterien und -schimmelpilzen. Der starkste Schutz findet sich bei Kindern der Amischen, die eine sehr traditionelle Landwirtschaft betreiben. In dieser Bevolkerungsgruppe ist der Heuschnupfen eine Raritat, die allergische Sensibilisierung etwa 6‑mal seltener als bei Stadtkindern in Deutschland, und virusinduzierte obstruktive Bronchitiden ohne Progression in ein allergisches Asthma herrschen vor.

Social environments, risk-taking and injury in farm adolescents

BackgroundFarm environments are especially hazardous for young people. While much is known about acute physical causes of traumatic farm injury, little is known about social factors that may underlie their...

Returns to Farm Child Labor in Tanzania

In developing countries, the opportunity costs of children's time may significantly hinder universal education. This paper studies one of these opportunity costs: we estimate the agricultural productivity of children aged 10 to 15, with the LSMS-ISA panel survey in Tanzania. Since child labor may be endogenous, we use the panel structure of the data and instrument changes in child labor by the change in the number of children of household members of the relevant age range over time. One day of child work leads to an increase in production value by US $1.43-2.45, depending on specifications. Children enrolled in school work 26 days less than non-enrolled children. Compensating them for the loss in income can be done by monthly payments between US $ 3.1-5.3. We find that girls are far less productive than boys on the farm but this may be explained by the fact that they share their day between different activities.

Late introduction of fish and eggs is associated with increased risk of allergy development – results from the FARMFLORA birth cohort

ABSTRACTThe prevalence of allergy is markedly low in children growing up on farms. An increasing number of studies indicate that the timing of food introduction may affect allergy development. We aimed to investigate if protection against allergy in farm environments may be mediated through differences in food-introduction practices between farm and non-farm families, using an explorative approach. Twenty-eight farm and 37 non-farm children were included in the FARMFLORA birth cohort. Practices of breastfeeding and introduction of formulas and complementary foods were collected by questionnaires at 6, 12, and 18 months of age. Allergy was diagnosed by pediatricians at 3 years of age. The only difference in food-introduction practices observed between farm and non-farm children was an earlier introduction of nuts in farmers (median month: 11 [IQR: 8–6] in farmers, 15 [12–19] in non-farmers). One farm child (4%) and 10 non-farm children (27%) were allergic at 3 years of age. Lower risk of allergy development was associated with early exclusive breastfeeding (continuous variable; OR = 0.59, 95% CI: 0.39–0.89), but also having received eggs (OR = 0.08, 95% CI: 0.13–0.54) and fish (logistic regression not applicable, P = 0.01 in likelihood ratio testing [χ2]) at 10 months of age or earlier compared to later. Our results were not affected by reverse causation, as judged by a questionnaire sent to the families in retrospect. Timing of introduction of complementary foods is unlikely to contribute to the lower risk of allergy among farm children. Although early exclusive breastfeeding was associated with a lower rate of allergy development, postponed introduction of complementary foods might increase the risk of developing allergy. Owing to the limited sample size, our results are only indicative, but support prior findings.

Malnutrition among Children under 5 Does Not Correlate with Higher Socio Economic Status of Parents in Rural Communities

Introduction: Understanding the socioeconomic characteristics of families with undernourished children is very critical to providing solution to the menace especially in rural communities where there is complexity in the relationship between economic activities, education and parental care and the undernutrition. Objectives: The study is aimed at understanding the nutritional status of children under the age of 5 years in relation to the socio economic status of the family so as to determine causes of vulnerability. Methods: Hospital based cross sectional study was carried among 505 children under the age of 5 years, taking measurement of their Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) using standard techniques and also taking records of their families’ socioeconomic data using structured questionnaire. Results: Record of nutritional status of the children sampled shows that undernourished children were 345 (68.3%) and the nourished were 160 (31.7%). The number of times each child felt sick within the last one year shows that out of the total 505 children, 140 (27.72%) fell sick once, 155 (30.69%) fall sick twice in the previous year, 65 (12.87%) felt sick three times, 55 (10.89%) felt sick four times due to either malaria, undernutrition or other factors. Children born to farmers, constituting 51.5% of the sampled children have as high as 69.2% prevalence of undernutrition, compared to those born to beggars (0%). The highest prevalence is recorded in children born to petty traders (80%), followed by government workers and commercial motorcyclist with 75% each. Prevalence of 100% was recorded in the sampled children whose father attains tertiary level of education, followed by those who attain only secondary level of education (68%). Conclusion: There is high prevalence of undernutrition among children in rural communities which is often underestimated for the fact that rural dwellers of Kano are mostly farmers and that they are adequate to provide for their children. Frequency of illnesses among the children of rural dwellers is associated with the nutritional status of the children. Malnutrition is not always dependent on the occupation and educational status of the parents or whether child parents are alive or not. Children of farmers and learned persons are also very susceptible to malnutrition in the rural communities of Kano. Nutritional education and programs should as well target all families with varied socioeconomic status, including farmers, petty traders and those with high educational status without making assumptions that they are less susceptible to malnutrition.

Altered Hematological and Biochemical Parameters in Schoolchildren Living in an Agricultural Community of Merida State, Venezuela

Epidemiological studies have found that children living in a pesticide treated farmland have higher risk of developing cancer or other serious health problems. Their exposure to pesticides could be limited by periodic health assessments; however, there are few biomarkers for pesticide exposure. The aim of this work was to examine the effects of chronic exposure to pesticides on hematological and biochemical parameters in farm-resident children compared to urban-resident control children. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 72 farm schoolchildren and 41 controls; a follow-up study was done two years later on 20 participants. The children underwent a clinical examination, nutritional assessment, and blood sampling for complete hemogram and biochemical analysis of liver and renal functions, lipid and glucose metabolism, plasma cholinesterase, thyroid hormones and total antioxidant capacity. A prevalence of malnutrition and undernutrition were found in both exposed and control children. The most important hematological results were thrombocytosis in 48% of farm children, increased mean lymphocyte and monocyte counts, and decreased mean neutrophil counts compared to control. Butyrylcholinesterase activity was diminished in 35% of farm children. Alterations in biochemical parameters were observed between exposed and control groups, however, most of the results were within normal limits, except for the significant decrease in total antioxidant capacity. Follow-up study 2 years later showed normalized platelet and lymphocyte counts, however, decreased neutrophil counts was still observed. This study demonstrates that children living in an agricultural community are exposed to the health hazards of pesticides. Undernutrition and improper dental hygiene affect children’s overall health status and are likely to increase their vulnerability to toxic effects of pesticides.

Farm Family Characteristics and Succession Planning of Poultry Farmers in Oyo and Osun States, Nigeria

South-western Nigeria has a long history of small business entrepreneurship activities, apprenticeship and inheritance systems. Yet, there are few studies and records of poultry business inheritance over the last three or four generations of poultry business owners as a sign of succession planning. This study assessed the family characteristics of the poultry farmers and their relationship with the succession planning of the poultry farming business in Oyo and Osun states of Nigeria. Two hundred and forty-four (244) members of the Poultry Association of Nigeria (PAN) within these two states constituted the sample. Descriptive and inferential statistics such as Chi-square and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was used for data analysis. Results of the study revealed that (i) poultry farmers in the two states are highly educated with modal educational level of majority (79.1%) being tertiary education (ii) greater than half (54.5%) of them are between the ages of 40 and 60 years and the populations mean age is 43.8 years. Significant positive connections were found between the educational status of the incumbent poultry farm owners and their children, with majority (61.5%) of the oldest child and few (37.4%) of their youngest farm child having tertiary education (such as Bachelors degree and HND certificates). With this educational background, it is anticipated that farm succession/farm transition should be easier among this generation of poultry farmers if explored. In fact 41.0% of these oldest poultry farm children were found to be between the active age of 21-30 years old, hence farmers in this study area should not hesitate or delay to plan for succession with their children and embark on early succession planning. It is thus recommended that Nigerian small and medium scale (SMEs) poultry entrepreneurs should take the challenges of farm succession practices and incorporate intra-family succession planning activities/practices early into their business so as to enhance future sustainability of their farms. Government should encourage poultry farmers to promote farming culture among their educated children with no gender discrimination and also give special annual bonus packages or tax; rebate to farmers who can present good evidence of succession planning on their farms.

Environmental Exposures and Asthma

Research Article| December 01 2016 Environmental Exposures and Asthma AAP Grand Rounds (2016) 36 (6): 67. https://doi.org/10.1542/gr.36-6-67 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Environmental Exposures and Asthma. AAP Grand Rounds December 2016; 36 (6): 67. https://doi.org/10.1542/gr.36-6-67 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All PublicationsAll JournalsAAP Grand RoundsPediatricsHospital PediatricsPediatrics In ReviewNeoReviewsAAP NewsAll AAP Sites Search Advanced Search Topics: asthma, environmental exposure Stein MM, Hrusch CL, Gozdz J, et al. Innate immunity and asthma risk in Amish and Hutterite farm children. N Engl J Med. 2016; 375(5): 411– 421; doi: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1508749Google Scholar Investigators from multiple institutions studied the effect of the environment on asthma among 2 distinctive US farming populations—the Amish of Indiana and the Hutterites of South Dakota. These 2 populations were chosen because the prevalence of asthma in each is strikingly different (5% in Amish and 21% in Hutterites) despite having similar lifestyles with respect to most of the factors known to influence the risk of asthma (eg, large sibship size, minimal exposure to tobacco smoke and air pollution, long durations of breastfeeding) and similar genetic ancestry (both populations originated in Europe and have remained reproductively isolated since immigrating to the United States). One important difference between the 2 populations is that the Amish practice traditional farming (eg, single-family dairy farms and use of horses for fieldwork) and the Hutterites live on large, highly industrialized communal farms. Amish children aged 7–14 years were eligible. Hutterite children were age- and gender-matched to the enrolled Amish children. Whole blood was collected from all participants to measure serum IgE and cytokine levels. Investigators also extracted DNA to assess ancestry by performing genotyping and comparing allele frequencies with European populations included in the Human Genome Diversity Project. Dust was collected in 10 Amish and 10 Hutterite homes and analyzed for endotoxin levels. Extract from Amish or Hutterite dust was then instilled intranasally every 2–3 days for 7 days in wild-type mice and mice deficient in proteins (MyD88 and Trif) involved in multiple innate immunity signaling pathways. Airway inflammation in mice was measured by assessing airway hyperresponsiveness and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) eosinophilia. The investigators compared the differences in distributions of IgE and cytokine levels between Amish and Hutterite children as well as differences in airway inflammation in mice exposed to Amish and Hutterite dust extract. There were 30 Amish and 30 Hutterite children enrolled. None of the Amish children had asthma, and 20% of the Hutterite children did. In ancestry analysis, Amish and Hutterite children were genetically similar compared with other European populations. Serum IgE and cytokine levels were significantly lower in Amish children compared to Hutterite children. Mean endotoxin levels were significantly higher in Amish versus Hutterite homes. When Hutterite dust extract was administered to wild-type mice, airway inflammation was observed. When Amish dust extract was administered, airway inflammation was suppressed. This protection was lost when Amish dust extract was applied to mice lacking the innate immunity proteins MyD88 and Trif. The investigators conclude that the Amish farm dust is protective against asthma through stimulation of innate immunity. Dr. Phillipi has disclosed no financial relationship relevant to this commentary. This commentary does not contain a discussion of an unapproved/investigative use of a commercial product/device. Asthma is increasingly common, affecting 6.3 million US children with an estimated prevalence of 8.6%.1 Reasons... You do not currently have access to this content.

Farmer Children’s Willingness for Dairy Farming succession in Banyumas Regency

The objectives of this research were to 1) observe the age, education, farm parents’ cattle ownership, parents’ income, children’s perception and willingness for farming succession, and 2) investigate the relationship between age, education, farm parents’ cattle ownership, parents’ income, children’s perception of and willingness for farming succession. Purposive sampling was used to determine the regional sample in three districts in Banyumas regency with the most dairy cow population and were the supervised area subject to “Pesat” Milk Cooperative. Ninety respondents from 10-30 years old were determined. Result showed that farmers’ children had better education than the parents with average age of 21,67 years old. Average cattle ownership was 1-15 heads per household with Rp 564.167 – Rp 4.523.333monthly income. Farmers’ children shaped positive perception on dairy farming and had willingness for farming succession. Age was positively correlated with farming perception and willingness of the farmers’ children, while education was negatively correlated.

Farmer Children’s Willingness for Dairy Farming succession in Banyumas Regency

The objectives of this research were to 1) observe the age, education, farm parents’ cattle ownership, parents’ income, children’s perception and willingness for farming succession, and 2) investigate the relationship between age, education, farm parents’ cattle ownership, parents’ income, children’s perception of and willingness for farming succession. Purposive sampling was used to determine the regional sample in three districts in Banyumas regency with the most dairy cow population and were the supervised area subject to “Pesat” Milk Cooperative. Ninety respondents from 10-30 years old were determined. Result showed that farmers’ children had better education than the parents with average age of 21,67 years old. Average cattle ownership was 1-15 heads per household with Rp 564.167 – Rp 4.523.333monthly income. Farmers’ children shaped positive perception on dairy farming and had willingness for farming succession. Age was positively correlated with farming perception and willingness of the farmers’ children, while education was negatively correlated.

Bacterial microbiota of the upper respiratory tract and childhood asthma

Patients with asthma and healthy controls differ in bacterial colonization of the respiratory tract. The upper airways have been shown to reflect colonization of the lower airways, the actual site of inflammation in asthma, which is hardly accessible in population studies. We sought to characterize the bacterial communities at 2 sites of the upper respiratory tract obtained from children from a rural area and to relate these to asthma. The microbiota of 327 throat and 68 nasal samples from school-age farm and nonfarm children were analyzed by 454-pyrosequencing of the bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA gene. Alterations in nasal microbiota but not of throat microbiota were associated with asthma. Children with asthma had lower α- and β-diversity of the nasal microbiota as compared with healthy control children. Furthermore, asthma presence was positively associated with a specific operational taxonomic unit from the genus Moraxella in children not exposed to farming, whereas in farm children Moraxella colonization was unrelated to asthma. In nonfarm children, Moraxella colonization explained the association between bacterial diversity and asthma to a large extent. Asthma was mainly associated with an altered nasal microbiota characterized by lower diversity and Moraxella abundance. Children living on farms might not be susceptible to the disadvantageous effect of Moraxella. Prospective studies may clarify whether Moraxella outgrowth is a cause or a consequence of loss in diversity.

Parents' Attitudes to Risk and Injury to Children and Young People on Farms.

ObjectivesChildren and young people growing up in a farm environment run a greater risk of being injured or dying in an accident than their non-farming counterparts. This study examines farming parents’ attitudes and experiences of having their children grow up on farms, one of the most dangerous work environments as their home, everyday environment and playground.MethodData were collected using two ethnological methods, a question list and interviews, with a study population of 20 parents. The data were analysed phenomenologically.ResultsThe analysis pursued four themes: i) the most dangerous places and situations on the farm; ii) children’s tasks on the farm; iii) children as a safety risk on the farm; and iv) farm risk education for children.ConclusionsMost parents know the risks on their farm, but are sometimes careless when working under stress or exhaustion. Some parents wanted more information and some wanted compulsory preventative or safety measures by manufacturers, e.g. a safety belt as standard on the extra seat in tractors. Children’s friends were described as one of the greatest risks for injury due to peer pressure. Some parents mentioned that people who grow up on farms are sometimes ‘blind’ to the dangers. Other parents seemed to overlook the risks and had their children carrying out tasks for which they were not mentally or physically equipped. Some of the tasks the children reportedly carried out on farms contravened Swedish legislation. It is thus important for farming parents to be repeatedly reminded of the risks to their children and to increase their awareness of how to prevent and eliminate risks in order to avoid accidents on the farm. The situation for farm children is highlighted in a critical discussion.