Farfugium Japonicum Research Articles

Impact on the scape of Farfugium japonicum var. japonicum (Asteraceae) under strong wind conditions based on morphological and mechanical analyses.

Adaptation of Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitam. var. japonicum (Asteraceae) to the strong wind environment of coastal areas has been shown to reduce lamina size and shorten petioles; however, their effects on other traits of this species remain unknown. Our morphological analyses showed that shortening of the scape of this species is correlated with shortening of the petiole in coastal areas. The results suggested that when the height of the scapes became higher than that of the petioles, the wind stress on the scapes became stronger and their growth was suppressed. Therefore, the populations in coastal areas with strong winds had significantly shorter scapes than inland populations, and the height of petioles and scapes in the coastal populations were correlated. Further mechanical analysis by three-point bending tests revealed that the scapes had higher strength than the petioles. This species is evergreen and can produce new leaves regardless of the season, even if it loses its leaves by strong winds; however, because scapes only develop above ground for a limited period of the year, the loss of the scapes by strong winds has a significant impact on reproduction in that year. Therefore, even though the scapes were stronger than the petiole, shortening the scapes plays an important role in reducing strong wind stress in coastal areas.

Evaluating the Particulate Matter and Carbon Dioxide Reduction of Four Broad-leaved Evergreen Plants

Background and objective: Since people spend 70-80% of their time indoors, the quality of indoor air has become a crucial factor in overall health. Therefore, poor indoor air quality can have significant adverse effects on our well-being. Common indoor air pollutants are particulate matter (PM) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Plants can remove PM and CO2 through the photosynthesis process and leaf surfaces, and regulate the temperature and humidity of the air. By analyzing the PM and CO2 reduction of four broad-leaved evergreen plants, this study aims to provide data for air purification in indoor spaces.Methods: The four different plant species (Neolitsea sericea (Blume) Koidz., Coffea arabica L., Photinia glabra(Thunb.) Franch. and Sav., and Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitam.) were selected for this study. Mosquito coils and a CO2 cylinder were the primary sources of PM and CO2. These pollutants were injected into a closed acrylic chamber with plants, and the air quality within the chamber was monitored for a duration of five hours. The plants' effectiveness in reducing carbon dioxide was evaluated through the clean air delivery rate (CADR), while their ability to reduce PM was assessed by analyzing the PM reduction rate. Photosynthetic rates and leaf area were also measured to determine the correlation between air pollution removal and these factors.Results: The ability to remove PM and CO2 varied among plants. Plants with higher rates of photosynthesis were more effective in reducing PM and CO2 than those with lower rates. Among the four plant species, C. arabica and P. glabra were more effective in removing PM and CO2 than the other species. The chamber containing plants exhibited higher humidity and lower temperatures compared to the chamber without plants.Conclusion: These findings suggest that plants can play a significant role in improving indoor air quality. Not only do they effectively reduce levels of PM and CO2, but they also contribute to the regulation of indoor temperature and humidity. The implications of these results highlight the potential of integrating plants into indoor spaces as a natural and multifaceted solution for creating healthier and more comfortable environments.

Assessment of Adequate Volumetric Water Content for Managing Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitam. in the Indoor Gardens

Background and objective: The present research study aimed to investigate the optimum substrate volumetric water content (VWC) needed for <i>Farfugium japonicum</i> (L.) Kitam. to maintain its performance in the indoor garden.Methods: The threshold levels of substrate VWC were evaluated as 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 or 0.4 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> using an automated irrigation system with capacitance soil moisture sensors and datalogger. Plant growth and physiological responses were measured and analyzed at 10 weeks after treatment. Plant growth was investigated by measuring survival rate, plant height, leaf length, leaf width, leaf number, root length, fresh and dry weight of shoot and root. Physiological responses were observed by analyzing antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POD) and antioxidants (MDA, proline), maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm) and total chlorophyll contents.Results: The results of drought tolerance measurement by the treatment group showed that the overall growth was the highest in the 0.3 and 0.4 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> treatment plot and the lowest in the 0.1 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> treatment plot. Under the droughtstressed condition of the 0.2 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> treatment, growth was not as efficient as the 0.3 and 0.4 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> treatments due to the relatively higher moisture content, but there was no statistical difference between the 0.3 and 0.4 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> treatments in the maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm) and also total chlorophyll content. Furthermore, for antioxidant activities, SOD, POD, and MDA showed high values, but no statistical differences were found among treatments except for the 0.1 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> treatment, which was under severe drought stress in terms of proline.Conclusion: Overall, the results indicate that <i>Farfugium japonicum</i> (L.) Kitam., has a tolerance to drought, and for managing indoor gardens the adequate soil moisture content for the growth is at least 0.2 m<sup>3</sup>⋅m<sup>-3</sup> assuming the use of identical substrate in this experiment.

Effect of strong wind on laminas and petioles of Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitam. var. japonicum (Asteraceae).

Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitam. var. japonicum grows mainly in the coastal areas of Japan. Meteorological recording data from natural habitats were used to investigate the factors associated with the laminas and petioles of radical leaves of F. japonicum var. japonicum to avoid or resist higher wind stress. Our morphological and mechanical results indicated that petiole length and petiole cross-sectional area had a weak correlation with wind speed and breaking strength, and the petiole second area moment of inertia did not differ significantly among populations. However, both lamina area and petiole length per petiole cross-sectional area decreased with increasing wind speed, indicating that F. japonicum var. japonicum resisted or avoided an increase in wind speed outdoors by reducing the lamina area and petiole length per petiole cross-sectional area without qualitative changes in their petioles. The results of this study indicated that densely distributed recording stations of the Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS) by the Japan Meteorological Agency can be used for environmental adaptation studies of plants in the field using nearby plant populations.

Development of a Model for Estimating Leaf Area and the Number of Flower Using Leaf Length and Width of Farfugium japonicum Kitam.

The leopard plant has the characteristic of being used for ornamental purposes when there are yellow spots on the leaves, and is widely used as a bed plant for viewing flowers. To set several indicators to predict the growth of crops with ornamental value, and to quantitatively express the relationship between the indicators are necessary. In this study, we determine a model that estimates the leaf area and the number of flower of Farfugium japonicum Kitam. using leaf length and width, and conducting a regression analysis on some regression models. As an indicator for estimating the leaf area and the number of flower, the leaf length and width of F. japonicum were measured and applied to 8 regression models. As a result of regression analysis of 8 models that estimated leaf area and the number of flower, R2 values of the linear models were all higher than 0.84 and 0.80. As a result of validation, using the most reliable model among the models for estimating the leaf area and the number of flowering, R2 was 0.90 and 0.82, respectively. Using a model that estimates various indicators that can be used for quality evaluation from easy-to-measure morphological factors, the evaluation of ornamental plants will be facilitated.

Composition and Antioxidative and Antibacterial Activities of the Essential Oil from Farfugium japonicum.

The composition of volatile oils of the leaf and stem of Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitamura were prepared by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)-CO2. A total 47 and 40 compounds were identified by GC/MS analysis, respectively, and only 13 compounds coexisted. The main constituent types in the leaf oil included alcohols (34.1%), hydrocarbons (24.1%), terpenoids (16.2%), benzenes (7.5%), and fatty acids (4.9%). In the stem oil, the constituent types chiefly included benzenes (18.8%), ketones (13.9%), terpenoids (17.0%), fatty acids (8.8%), phenolics (8.7%), steroids (8.6%), hydrocarbons (8.0%), and esters (5.7%). The predominant volatile compounds in the stem were 2-(1-cyclopent-1-enyl-1-methylethyl) cyclopentanone (11.7%), 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8-octahydro- 9,10-dimethyl-anthracene (8.4%), 5-heptylresorcinol (6.5%), and α-sitosterol (5.2%). Those in the leaf mainly included (E)-3-hexen-1-ol (13.7%) and (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol (14.0%). This demonstrated a significant difference in the composition of both oils. Further study showed that stem oils demonstrated the highest DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-pinylhydrazyl) and ·OH free radical scavenging capacities at IC50 values of 9.22 and 0.90 mg/mL, respectively. In addition, they demonstrated the strongest antibacterial capacity against the Gram-positive bacteria methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) at a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.16 mg/mL. This could be due to the SFE-CO2 extraction and the high accumulation of benzenes, terpenoids, and phenolics in the stem. In particular, the monoterpenes presented in terpenoids could play a special role in these findings.

First report of Alternaria cinerariae causing leaf blight on Farfugium japonicum in South Carolina, USA.

Farfugium japonicum, commonly known as leopard plant, is a popular perennial used in landscapes in the Southeastern U.S. In March 2022, leaf blight was observed on 20 leopard plants at a landscape site in Georgetown Co., SC. Almost all leaves were infected. Symptoms included purple to brown necrotic leaf spots and blighted petioles. Large spots had concentric circles and coalesced causing entire leaves to blight. Leaf pieces surrounding necrotic spots were excised, sterilized in 10% bleach for 1 min, rinsed in sterile water, placed onto potato dextrose agar (PDA), and incubated at 25°C. A total of three Alternaria isolates, 22-094-A, 22-094-B, and 22-094-C were obtained by transferring hyphal tips to new plates. All isolates had identical morphological traits. Colonies on PDA were blackish at the center and brownish at the edge. Conidia were produced using a technique described by Shahin and Shepard (1979). Conidiophores were mostly short and unbranched. They were characterized by solitary conidia or short chains of two to three conidia. Conidia (n=30) were obpyriform to obclavate and averaged 88.5 ± 26.1 µm in body length, 118.4 ± 36.3 µm in total length, and 23.9 ± 5.9 µm in width. They had 3 to 7 transverse septa and 0 to 4 longitudinal septa. Beaks were broadly tapered. Sequence of the internal transcript spacer (ITS) region of isolate 22-094-A (GenBank Accession No. OP481973) had 100% homology to that of CBS 116495 (KC584190), a representative strain of A. cinerariae (Woudenberg et al. 2013). Based on the morphological and sequence characters, the casual fungus was identified as A. cinerariae. Pathogenicity confirmation was done in two separate assays. In a detached-leaf assay, mature leaves were collected from 5-year-old F. japonicum 'Gigantea' plants. Five leaves (abaxial surface) were sprayed with a mixture of conidial suspensions of the three isolates at 300 conidia per mL and 1.5 mL per leaf, while sterile water was used for a non-inoculated control leaf. Leaves were placed in a plastic tray with wet paper towels. The tray was placed at 22°C for an 8-h photoperiod and covered for 3 days to maintain moisture. Small purple to brown spots were visible on inoculated leaves 2 days after inoculation (DAI). More than 90% of inoculated leaf areas were blighted 10 DAI, whereas the control leaf remained asymptomatic. In a whole-plant assay, three F. japonicum 'Argenteo Marginata' plants grown in 10-inch pots were placed in a plastic tray and sprayed with a conidial suspension of 22-094-A onto both abaxial and adaxial surfaces at 300 conidia per mL and 40 mL per plant. The tray was maintained as described above. Sterile water was used for a non-inoculated control plant. Small leaf spots appeared on the inoculated plants 2 DAI. Large necrotic areas developed on leaves and girdled petioles causing aboveground tissues to collapse 4 DAI. All inoculated leaves were blighted 7 to 10 DAI, while the non-inoculated control plant remained healthy. Each assay was repeated once. Alternaria cinerariae, identified by distinct morphology traits (Nishikawa and Nakashima 2015), was consistently re-isolated from inoculated leaves in both assays. Leaf spot on F. japonicum caused by A. cinerariae has been reported in CA, USA (Woudenberg et al. 2013) and Japan (Sakoda et al. 2010). This is the first report in SC, USA. This fungus also infects at least 25 other hosts (Farr and Rossman 2022). This disease may pose a threat to leopard plants in nurseries and landscapes under conducive conditions. Disease management strategies are warranted.

The complete chloroplast genome sequence of Tussilago farfara (Asteraceae)

Tussilago farfara is a member of the family Asteraceae. In this paper, we reported the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of T. farfara. The results showed that T. farfara complete chloroplast genome comprises 151,325 bp, containing a largen single copy (LSC) region of 83,370 bp, a small single copy (SSC) region of 18,273 bp, and a pair of inverted repeats (IRs) region of 24,841 bp. The genome has a GC content of 37.4%. The LSC, SSC, and IR regions represent 35.5%, 30.6%, and 43.0% of the T. farfara chloroplast genome length. We annotated 132 genes, comprising 87 protein-coding genes (PCGs), eight rRNA genes, and 36 tRNA genes. A phylogenetic analysis based on 31 cpDNA genomes suggested that the T. farfara is closely related to Farfugium japonicum.

Characterization of the complete chloroplast genome of Farfugium japonicum (Asteraceae)

The complete chloroplast genome of Farfugium japonicum, which belongs to tribe Senecioneae (Asteraceae) was characterized. The size of the chloroplast genome is 151,222 bp in length with a large single copy (LSC) of 83,417 bp, a small single copy (SSC) of 18,125 bp, and a pair of inverted repeats of 24,840 bp. The chloroplast genome encodes a set of 133 genes, including 88 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and 8 rRNA genes. Phylogenomic analysis based on chloroplast genomes of 18 related species revealed that F. japonicum is clustered with species from Ligularia and rooted with the other Senecioneae genus. The chloroplast genome of Farfugium japonicum provides an important resource for further study of molecular evolution.

The taxonomic status of Aphelenchoides besseyi Christie, 1942 (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) populations from the southeastern USA, and description of Aphelenchoides pseudobesseyi sp. n.

Summary Populations reviously identified as Aphelenchoides besseyi were studied. Using an integrated approach, the A. besseyi species complex contains several cryptic species: A. besseyi sensu stricto, A. oryzae, A. pseudobesseyi sp. n. and other putative undescribed species. A population from Florida strawberry morphologically fits the A. besseyi of both Christie and Allen and is considered the only representative of this species. A Louisiana rice population fitted the descriptions of A. oryzae of both Yokoo and Fortuner; PUS length was consistently less than one-third of VA. Aphelenchoides oryzae, parasitising rice and other monocots, was re-established based on morphological and molecular datasets. Three populations from Florida ornamental plants (Dryopteris erythrosora, Echinacea sp. and Farfugium japonicum) differed from those of the two above-mentioned species and are described as A. pseudobesseyi sp. n. Populations previously identified as ‘A. besseyi’ from several countries were considered representatives of this new species, which usually had a large and conspicuous PUS, 8-14 μm wide and with a length greater than one-third of VA in 40-70% of studied specimens. Morphological variability made separation of A. pseudobesseyi sp. n. from A. oryzae and A. besseyi unreliable without the examination of numerous specimens and molecular analysis.

Geographical Patterns of Allozyme Variation in Angelica japonica (Umbelliferae) and Farfugium japonicum (Compositae) on the Ryukyu Islands, Japan

Geographical patterns of the genetic differentiation of Angelica japonica and Farfugium japonicum were analyzed using allozyme analysis. Many rare alleles were found only in the southern Ryukyus popul

First Report of Cucumber mosaic virus in Farfugium japonicum in Korea

First Report of <i>Cucumber mosaic virus</i> in <i>Farfugium japonicum</i> in Korea

Quantitative Determination of Bakkenolide D in Petasites japonicus and Farfugium japonicum by HPLC/UV

A quantitative analysis of bakkenolide D in the different parts of Petasites japonicus and Farfugium japonicum was performed by HPLC. A gradient HPLC elution system with a mobile phase consisting of water: acetonitrile solution (20:80 to 0:100 for 45 min) was followed and an INNO C18 column was used for the chromatographic separation. The injection volume, flow rate, and UV detection were 10 μL, 1 mL/min, and 290 nm, respectively. Results show that both species showed the highest amount of bakkenolide D in the roots being 107.203 and 166.103 mg/g for P. japonicas and F. japonicum, respectively. Content analysis on the different parts of both plants displayed remarkably lower values which ranged from 0.403 - 4.419 and 7.252 - 32.614 mg/g for P. japonicas and F. japonicum, respectively. The results show that the roots of both plants are rich in bakkenolide D showing a promising use in the development of nutraceuticals and industrial application of the compound.

한려해상국립공원 일대의 민속식물

본 연구는 한려해상국립공원 일대에서 이용되는 민속식물에 대한 전통지식 정보를 수집 및 보존을 위하여 2012년 3월부터 2013년 10월까지 수행되었다. 한려해상국립공원 일대 70개소에서 주민 183명을 대상으로 수집한 조사야장 1,430장의 설문조사를 수행한 결과, 조사된 식물은 총 82과 197속 224종 3아종 19변종 1품종의 총 247분류군으로 정리되었다. 용도별 이용현황은 식용 166분류군, 약용 138분류군, 생활용품 27분류군, 용재용 16분류군, 제례용 9분류군 등으로 주로 식&#xB7;약용 이용 높았다. 이용 부위로는 잎, 줄기, 열매, 뿌리 순으로 나타났다. 또한 조사된 247분류군의 전통지식에 대한 정량적 분석을 통하여 특정식물 종의 이용을 언급한 정보보유자의 수(FC), 이용범주 수(NU), 특정식물을 이용하는 수(UR), 문화적 중요도 지수(CI), 상대적 인용빈도(RFC), 상대적 중요도(RI), 문화적 가치(CV)를 산출하였다. 그 결과, 문화적 중요도 지수(CI)는 쑥, 칡, 민들레, 상대적 인용빈도(RFC)는 쑥, 쇠무릎, 참취, 상대적 중요도(RI)는 쑥, 칡, 소나무, 문화적 가치(CV)는 쑥, 칡, 쇠무릎 등의 순으로 나타났다. 또한 본 조사지역의 고유한 전통지식으로 털머위뿌리를 관절염, 산후풍, 혈액순환 장애 등에 사용한 것으로 나타났다. The ethnobotanical study was conducted to record and conserve the traditional knowledge of botanical taxa in Hallyeo-Haesang National Park area, S. Korea from 2012 to 2013. According to the survey results, derived from 1,430 sheets of 183 residents at 70 places, the ethnobotanical plants in Hallyeo-Haesang National Park area consisted of a total 247 taxa; 82 families, 197 genera, 224 species, 3 subspecies, 19 varieties and 1 form. The analysis of usage for 247 taxa showed that the edible use was the highest with 166 taxa, followed by medicinal with 138 taxa, craft with 27 taxa, material with 16 taxa and ritual with 9 taxa respectively. The leaf of plant was the most useful part, followed by stem and fruit plant. Quantitative analysis of the ethnobotanical plants in Hallyeo-Haesang National Park area was performed by the basic values of FC, NU and UR, and indices of CI, RFC, RI and CV. As a result, The CI places Artemisia princeps in the first position, followed by Pueraria lobata, Taraxacum platycarpum. The RFC place A. princeps in first position, followed by Achyranthes japonica, Aster scaber. The RI places A. princeps in the first position, followed by P. lobata, Pinus densiflora. The CV places A. princeps in the first position, followed by P. lobata, A. japonica. Farfugium japonicum had been used as specific ethnobotanical plant in this area, for arthralgia, postpartum arthrodynia, circulatory disturbance.

First Report of Leaf Rust Caused by Puccinia caricis in Farfugium japonicum in Korea

Farfugium japonicum is used in traditional medicine and as an edible herb in China and Korea. In July 2013, leaf spots were observed in F. japonicum seedlings at Ulleung Island, Gyeongsangbuk Province, Korea. Early symptoms on the leaf adaxial surface included roughly circular yellow spots that later developed brown, necrotic centers. The aecia were hypophyllous, cupulate, yellowish, 180~430 μm in diameter, clustered, and erumpent with a peridium with a recurved margin. The aeciospores were globoid, 14~17 × 13~16 μm, light yellow or colorless, and densely verrucose. The 28S rDNA sequence of the isolate was identical to each other and shared 99% identity with Puccinia caricis. This is the first report of rust caused by P. caricis in F. japonicum in Korea or elsewhere in the world.

3β-Angeloyloxy-8β,10β-dihydroxyeremophila-7(11)-en-12,8α-lactone Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Nitric Oxide Production in RAW264.7 Cells.

Farfugium japonicum (L.) KITAM, named "Lian-Peng-Cao" in China, has been traditionally used in Chinese folk medicine to treat sore throat, cold and cough due to its anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, the anti-inflammatory action of 3β-angeloyloxy-8β,10β-dihydroxyeremophila-7(11)-en-12,8α-lactone (FJ1) isolated from Farfugium japonicum and its molecular mechanism in RAW264.7 cells were investigated. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay showed that FJ1 with or without 3 µg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) had no significant cytotoxicity in RAW264.7 cells. The production of nitric oxide (NO) was identified with a Griess reagent kit. The mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), was measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was detected by flow cytometry analysis. Western blot was used to examine the protein expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB)/p65, inhibitor of kappa B (IκB)-α, phosphorylated IκB-α (p-IκB-α), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) molecules, iNOS, and TNF-α. We discovered that FJ1 possesses anti-inflammatory effects that inhibit the release of LPS-stimulated pro-inflammatory cytokines, including NO and ROS. The molecular mechanism of FJ1-mediated anti-inflammation is associated with decreasing phosphorylation of MAPK molecules, including extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), p38 MAPK, and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), FJ1 also reverses IκB degradation and attenuates the mRNA and protein expression of NF-κB-related downstream inducible enzymes and cytokines, such as iNOS, TNF-α in RAW264.7 cells. The results suggest that FJ1 has anti-inflammatory properties, which indicates that F. japonicum can be utilized to treat inflammatory diseases. The potential mechanism is associated with the NF-κB and MAPK activation pathways in LPS-stimulated macrophages.

Morphological variation and experimental host range of Alternaria cinerariae

Alternaria cinerariae, an important and well-known plant pathogen of cineraria, has been delimited by its narrowly to broadly ellipsoid or ovoid conidia with blunt-tapered false beaks, but without descriptions of its morphological variability and host range. Leaf spot diseases have recently been found on asteraceous plants Pericallis cruenta, Farfugium japonicum, and Gynura bicolor in Japan, with A. cinerariae-like isolates subsequently obtained from the lesions. In this study, we identified these isolates as A. cinerariae using an integrated species criterion based on morphology, phylogeny, and pathogenicity, and examined their morphological variability. Although isolates exhibited morphological differences with respect to sporulation pattern, conidial swelling, and chlamydospore formation, phylogenetic analysis using gpd, rpb2, and tef1 sequences clustered them together in a single clade with a previously recognized A. cinerariae strain. Inoculation tests on 17 species, including five Senecioneae species, were performed to determine the experimental host range of A. cinerariae. The results suggest that A. cinerariae has considerable morphological variation and preferential pathogenicity to Senecioneae plants, and also indicate that G. bicolor should be added as a natural host of A. cinerariae.

First Report of Leaf Spot in Farfugium japonicum Caused by Alternaria tenuissima in Korea.

Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitam (common name: Leopard plant) is known as a medical herb and belongs to family Asteraceae (1). In June 2012, a leaf spot disease was observed on the leaf surface of F. japonicum at a forest research plot Jinju, Gyeongnam province, Korea. More than 95% of F. japonicum plants were infected and leaf spot symptom appeared in the regions under our investigation. Light brownish symptoms initially developed and the spot size gradually increased and turned dark brown with an irregular shape as the disease progressed (spot size 1 to 10 mm in diameter). At the late stage of disease, spots became hollow and completely dehydrated. The infected leaves were easily crumbled, possibly due to dryness. To isolate the causal agent, the infected leaves were surface disinfected and pieces of leaves were placed on water agar (WA). Nine isolates were isolated from 10 pieces of the infected leaves. Fungi mycelia from the WA were transferred on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and incubated at 28°C for 7 days. The colonies were purple navy to black and conidia spores developed on the media. The morphological characteristics of spores were multi-septate, dark brown, pyriform, and 6.7 to 12.8 × 22.2 to 38.4 μm. The spores had 1 to 4 transverse and 0 to 3 longitudinal septa. The morphological characteristics of the isolates showed considerably similar to well-known Alternaria tenuissima (2). The leaf spot disease caused by A. cinerariae of F. japonicum was reported from Japan (3). Spores of A. cinerariae are golden brown to brown with 3 to 9 transverse and 0 to 6 longitudinal septa and are 87.5 × 28.7 μm (avg.) (3). To verify pathogenicity of the isolate, the pure cultured fungi on the PDA medium was taken (4 mm in diameter) and placed on healthy leaves of Leopard plant. The artificially inoculated leaves were placed on wet filter paper in Petri dishes and incubated at 25°C and 80% humidity. At 7 days after inoculation, similar disease symptoms developed on 8 out of 10 infected Leopard plant leaves. The pathogen was reisolated from artificially infected leaves. To identify in molecular biology level, genomic DNA was extracted and the ITS-rDNA region was amplified using universal primers ITS1 and ITS4. The amplified PCR product was purified and sequenced (528 bp) with ITS1 and ITS4 primers for both directions and then deposited in GenBank (Accession No. KC415611.1). The BLAST search showed that it matched previously reported A. tenuissima with 100% identity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of Leopard plant leaf spot disease in Korea.

First Confirmed Report of Powdery Mildew Caused by Podosphaera xanthii on Farfugium japonicum in Korea.

Farfugium japonicum (L.) Kitam., known as Japanese silver leaf, is native to Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. It is grown as an ornamental plant for garden plantings and containers not only in East Asia but more recently also in Europe and North America. Since 2003, powdery mildew infections of F. japonicum 'Gigantea' have been consistently found in the southern part of Korea, including the districts of Jeju, Seogwipo, Busan, Wando, and Ulleungdo. Specimens have been deposited in the Korea University Herbarium (KUS). Signs of powdery mildew first appeared as circular to irregular white patches on both sides of the leaves. The infections were usually severe on young leaves and caused malformation and browning. Appressoria on the mycelium were nipple-shaped or nearly absent. Conidiophores, measuring 160 to 280 × 10 to 12.5 μm, were simple and produced 2 to 12 immature conidia in chains, followed by 2 to 3 cells. Foot-cells in conidiophores were relatively short, 50 to 95 μm long, and constricted at the base. Conidia were hyaline, ellipsoid to ovate, 32 to 48 × 17.5 to 25 μm (length/width ratio = 1.4 to 2.3), had distinct fibrosin bodies, and produced germ tubes on the lateral position. No chasmothecia were observed. The morphology and dimentions of reproductive structures were compatible with those of Podosphaera xanthii (Castagne) U. Braun & Shishkoff (1). To confirm the identity of the causal fungus, the complete ITS region of rDNA from isolate KUS-F26469 was amplified with primers ITS5 and P3 (4) and directly sequenced. The resulting sequence of 475 bp was deposited in GenBank (Accession No. KC155426). A GenBank BLAST search of this sequence revealed 100% identity (475/475 bp) with those of many P. fusca isolates on plants in the Aster family plants including Calendula officinalis, Euryops pectinatus, Syneilesis palmata, and F. japonicum from Japan (e.g., AB040346). The P. fusca isolates listed above are now placed in P. xanthii (1). Pathogenicity was confirmed through inoculation by gently pressing diseased leaves onto leaves of three healthy potted plants of the same cultivar. Three non-inoculated plants served as controls. Plants were maintained in a greenhouse at 25 ± 2°C. Inoculated plants developed typical signs and symptoms of powdery mildew after 8 days, whereas the control plants remained symptomless. The fungus present on the inoculated leaves was morphologically identical to that originally observed on diseased plants. Powdery mildew infections of F. japonicum caused by P. fusca (syn. P. fuliginea) have been reported previously in both Japan and Korea (2). In Korea, it was listed simply as a host fungus of Ampelomyces quisqualis, which is hyperparasitic to powdery midlews, without any data on its identity (3). To our knowledge, this is the first confirmed report of powdery mildew caused by P. xanthii on F. japonicum in Korea.

Comparison of the formation of nicotinic acid conjugates in leaves of different plant species

There are three metabolic fates of nicotinic acid in plants: (1) nicotinic acid mononucleotide formation for NAD synthesis by the so-called salvage pathway of pyridine nucleotide biosynthesis; (2) nicotinic acid N-glucoside formation; and (3) trigonelline (N-methylnicotinic acid) formation. In the present study, the metabolism of [carbonyl-(14)C]nicotinamide was investigated in leaves of 23 wild plant species. All species readily converted nicotinamide to nicotinic acid, and only a fraction of nicotinic acid was utilised for NAD and NADP synthesis. The remaining nicotinic acid is converted to the nicotinic acid conjugates. Only one plant species, Cycas revoluta, produced both nicotinic acid N-glucoside and trigonelline; the other 22 species produced one or other of the conjugates. The nicotinic acid N-glucoside-forming plants are Cyathea lepifera, Arenga trewmula var. englri, Barringtonia racemosa, Ilex paraguariensis, Angelica japonica, Scaevola taccada and Farfugium japonicum. In contrast, trigonelline is formed in C. lepifera, Ginkgo biloba, Pinus luchuensis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Alocasia odora, Pandanus odoratissimus, Hylocereus undatus, Kalanchoe pinnata, Kalanchoe tubiflora, Populus alba, Garcinia subelliptica, Oxalis corymbosa, Leucaena leucocephala, Vigna marina, Hibiscus tiliaceus and Melicope triphylla. The diversity of nicotinic acid conjugate formation in plants is discussed using these results and our previous investigation involving a few model plants, various crops and ferns. Nicotinic acid N-glucoside formation was restricted mostly to ferns and selected orders of angiosperms, whereas other plants produce trigonelline. In most cases the formation of both nicotinic acid conjugates is incompatible, but some exceptions have been found.