Family Socioeconomic Factors Research Articles

School Performance After Pediatric Intensive Care-Association of Mental Well-Being, Chronic Illnesses, and Family Socioeconomic Status.

To describe school performance in pediatric intensive care survivors, as well as the influence of chronic diseases, psychological well-being, and family socioeconomic status on poor school performance. Register-based observational descriptive follow-up study. A multicenter national study. All pediatric patients who were admitted to an ICU in Finland in 2009-2010. Children and adolescents of or beyond school age. None. Questionnaires regarding the child's coping in school classes, chronic illnesses, as well as family socioeconomic factors were sent to every child alive 6 years after discharge from intensive care in Finland. Mental well-being was measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. There were 1,109 responders in an ICU group of 3,674 children. Seven-hundred fifty-three of the respondents were of school age or older. Of these, 13% (101/753) demonstrated poor school performance. Children with difficulties in school more often had a need for regular medication (71.3% vs 32.4%; p < 0.001), healthcare visits (91.1% vs 80.6%; p = 0.01), some regular therapy (60.4% vs 13.7%; p < 0.001), chronic illnesses (86.3% vs 48.4%; p < 0.001), or additional ICU admissions (36.5% vs 14.9%; p = 0.003). Schooling difficulties were reported more often in children with abnormal Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores compared to those with normal or borderline scores (24.8% vs 5.4%; p < 0.001). In an adjusted logistic regression model, which included age, number of chronic diseases, and need for therapy, poor school performance was predicted by abnormal Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores, nonacademic parental education, and paternal manual labor status. Difficulties in school were more frequent when the child had chronic comorbid illnesses, especially neurologic or chromosomal abnormalities, had poor mental health, father was employed in manual labor, or parents were uneducated.

Changes to dietary and health outcomes following implementation of the 2012 updated US Department of Agriculture school nutrition standards: analysis using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2016.

In 2012, the US government overhauled school nutrition standards, but few studies have evaluated the effects of these standards at the national level. The current study examines the impact of the updated school nutrition standards on dietary and health outcomes of schoolchildren in a nationally representative data set. Difference-in-differences. We compared weekday fruit and vegetable intake between students with daily school lunch participation and students without school lunch participation before and after implementation of updated school nutrition standards using a multivariable linear regression model. Secondary outcomes included weekday solid fat and added sugar (SoFAS) intake and overweight and obesity prevalence. We adjusted analyses for demographic and family socio-economic factors. USA. K-12 students, aged 6-20 years (n 9172), from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2016. Implementation of updated school nutrition standards was not associated with a change in weekday fruit and vegetable intake (β = 0·02 cups, 95 % CI -0·23, 0·26) for students with daily school lunch participation. However, implementation of the policy was associated with a 1·5 percentage point (95 % CI -3·0, -0·1) decline in weekday SoFAS intake and a 6·1 percentage point (95 % CI -12·1, -0·1) decline in overweight and obesity prevalence. Changes to US school nutrition standards were associated with reductions in the consumption of SoFAS as well as a decrease in overweight and obesity in children who eat school lunch. However, we did not detect a change in weekday intake of fruits and vegetables associated with the policy change.

Association Between Serum Lipid Levels in Greek Children with Dyslipidemia and Mediterranean Diet Adherence, Dietary Habits, Lifestyle and Family Socioeconomic Factors.

Background: Childhood dyslipidemia is an important risk factor for developing cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Our study aimed to investigate a possible correlation between nutritional, lifestyle, behavioral and socioeconomic factors and serum lipid levels in children with dyslipidemia. Methods: In this retrospective, observational study, in 31 children with dyslipidemia, aged 3–14 years, dietary habits, physical activity, hours watching television or playing video games, family’s socioeconomic status, weight of children and parents, and duration of breastfeeding were recorded. The children’s adherence to the Mediterranean diet was also evaluated by KidMed index. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS.22. Results: Children with increased physical activity had lower triglyceride levels, compared to those with lower physical activity (p = 0.001). Children who consumed only one meal per day, had increased levels of total cholesterol (p = 0.01), LDL-cholesterol (p = 0.01), ApoB (p = 0.001) and lipoprotein (a) (p = 0.018), compared to those who consumed more than 3 meals per day (p < 0.05). Children who were breastfed less than 6 months had significantly increased LDL-C levels (p = 0.022), compared to children who were breastfed more than 6 months. All other parameters investigated did not differ significantly. Conclusions: This study showed association between lipid profile of children with dyslipidemia and specific nutritional and socioeconomic factors, such as increased physical activity, increased meals consumption during the day, and exclusive breastfeeding for more than 6 months. Nevertheless, further research is needed, in order to confirm these findings.

Mükerrer Suçluluk, Davranım Bozukluğu ve Antisosyal Kişilik Bozukluğu’nun Ortak Değişkenleri Üzerine Bir Derleme

In this study, the relationship of repeated criminality with psychopathological disorders such as Behavioral Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder was investigated. Within the scope of the study, it was mentioned about the individuals who were diagnosed with Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder, their crime rates, what kind of crimes they tend to commit, and the studies examining crime patterns. The relationship between Antisocial Personality Disorder and repeated guilt has been addressed in the light of longitudinal studies. In this study; The mechanisms that affect the repetitive pattern of crime were evaluated by taking into account psychological disorders such as Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder. In the study, the common risk factors of the Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder; Various factors such as age status, quality of the first crime committed, family attitude, family structure factors, socioeconomic factors, intelligence and school success were examined. In addition, in this study, Lifelong Criminology Theories are included in this study in order to examine the relation of the concept of antisociality with the repeated criminality. Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential Theory (ICAP) and Developmental Taxonomy Theory, which are among the Lifelong Criminology Theories; By addressing the factors that affect the development of repetitive criminality through the concept of antisociality, it helps to establish the relationship between the two concepts on more solid foundations.

Predictors of Adolescent Academic Achievement: The Role of Individual and Family Socioeconomic Factors

Academic achievement is affected by external and internal factors. This study generally aims to examine the influence of family characteristics (per capita income and parental education), individual characteristics (age and gender), cognitive intelligence, and self-regulated learning toward academic achievement in adolescents. A total of 91 samples (Mage=13.9 years) with the largest percentage of the respondents were women were selected from two different junior high schools in Bogor area. Cognitive intelligence, self-regulated learning, and academic achievement were measured using Riley Inventory Basic of Learning Skills (RIBLS), Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSQL), and student academic record, respectively. The partial regression analysis showed there was a negative effect of mother’s education on self-regulated learning. Gender was found to positively predicted cognitive intelligence. The regression analysis also showed that parental education and cognitive intelligence positively predicted adolescent academic achievement. Per capita income, gender, and self-regulated learning showed no significant effects on academic achievement.

Influences of childhood family factors on depressive symptoms in adolescence and early adulthood: A Danish longitudinal study.

Aims: The study examined the timing of family socio-economic factors during early (aged 0-8 years) and late (aged 9-14 years) childhood, as well as psychosocial variables in relation to depressive symptoms at the ages of 15, 18 and 21. Methods: This prospective cohort study included 3014 young people from western Denmark. Exposure variables were equivalised household income (income), mother's educational level and mother's labour market participation (LMP), derived from registers and self-reported variables family functioning, subjective social status and negative life events. The outcome variable was depressive symptoms. Associations were analysed using logistic regression, adjusted for other exposure variables and sex. Results: In early childhood, mother's low LMP was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms at the age of 15, whereas mother's low educational level and lower income was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms at the age of 21. In late childhood, lower income, mother's low educational level and mother's low LMP was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms at the ages of 15 and 21. Poorer family functioning was associated with depressive symptoms at the age of 15-21, with estimates ranging from 1.8 to 2.6. Reporting two or more negative life events were associated with depressive symptoms at the ages of 15 and 18. Conclusions: Timing of low income, mother's low educational level and mother's low LMP during childhood in relation to future depressive symptoms in the offspring appears to be of some importance in this Danish youth cohort. Family functioning and negative life events were the most stable risk factors for depressive symptoms. Results should, however, be interpreted with caution due to the risk of reverse causality.

Decision-Making Process of International Undergraduate Students: An Exploratory Narrative Inquiry into Reflections of Chinese Students in Canada

Purpose: This research is an exploratory narrative inquiry into reflections of three Chinese international undergraduate students in a Canadian university, University S, which reveals participants’ entire decision-making processes as potential international undergraduate students. Design/Approach/Methods: A two-dimensional analytical framework has been constructed. One dimension is based on three phases of the entire decision-making process: the phases of deciding whether or not to study abroad, selecting destination countries, and choosing target institutions. The second dimension is based on three kinds of hypothetically proposed environmental factors within each phase: policy factors, (family and regional) socioeconomic factors, and information factors. First-hand data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted based on the analytical framework. Findings: This article suggests that both policymakers in the source country (i.e., China) and university administrators in the destination country (i.e., Canada) should further support potential international undergraduate students during each phase of their decision-making processes, particularly through optimizing information supply channels. Originality/Value: This article has the potential to construct a new theoretical framework as a supplement for analyzing the entire decision-making process of potential international students. As a pilot study, it provides a template for further investigations.

Subjective Financial Well-Being During Emerging Adulthood: The Role of Student Debt

In this study, we examined (1) the effect of changes in outstanding student debt on trajectories of subjective financial well-being (SFWB) over time and (2) how these trajectories vary according to family socioeconomic and emerging adult financial factors. We used three waves of longitudinal data from the Arizona Pathways to Life Success for University Students (APLUS) study and used growth curve models to analyze the data. Net of family socioeconomic and emerging adult financial factors, student debt was significantly and negatively associated with SFWB across the emerging adult period. Trajectories of SFWB varied slightly in relation to changes in student debt. Between-person differences in debt mattered more for trajectories of SFWB relative to within-person changes in debt over time. Family socioeconomic factors had a strong influence on SFWB trajectories. Findings illustrate how student debt may suppress postsecondary education’s impact as an inequality reducing mechanism. They also suggest the need for both individual- and policy-level intervention.

HUBUNGAN FAKTOR SOSIAL EKONOMI KELUARGA, POLA KONSUMSI PANGAN DAN RIWAYAT PENYAKIT INFEKSI DENGAN KEJADIAN KURANG ENERGI KRONIS PADA IBU HAMIL DI KECAMATAN OEBOBO KOTA KUPANG

ABSTRACT BackgroundChronic energy deficiency (CED) in pregnancy has been widely known to have a negative impact on the mother and the fetus it contains. The most prominent negative impact is the increased risk of maternal and infant deaths during childbirth. CED in pregnant women can be caused by an imbalance of nutritional intake and infectious diseases. The aim of this research is to know and analyze the correlation between family socioeconomic factors (age, education, occupation, income, number of family members, family support), food consumption pattern (food type, food quantity, feeding frequency, food prohibition) and history of infectious diseases CED events in pregnant women. Research methodsThe type of research used is observational analytic research with cross sectional design. Sampling in total sampling with a sample size of 72 respondents. The instrument used is questionnaire and 24 hour food recall format. Data analysis was done in three stages: univariate analysis, bivariate analysis with chi square analysis method, multivariate analysis with multiple logistic regression analysis method. ResultsThe results of the study based on bivariate analysis showed that the variables associated with CED occurrence in pregnant women were education with p = 0,001 (p &lt;0,05), job with p value = 0,000 (p &lt;0,05), income with p value = 0,000 (P &lt;0,05), p = 0,000 (p &lt;0,05), p = 0,000 (p &lt;0,05), food consumption with p = 0,000 (p &lt;0,05) , 05), and feeding frequency with value p = 0,008 (p &lt;0,05). Multivariate analysis showed that variables associated with CED occurrence in pregnant women were job variable with p value = 0,026. ConclusionThere is a significant correlation between family socioeconomic factors (education, occupation, income, family support) and food consumption pattern (type of food, amount of food consumption and frequency of eating) with CED occurrence in pregnant women. Simultaneously then there is one variable that has a significant relationship with CED occurrence in pregnant women that is work.

Vaccine Coverage among Children with and without Intellectual Disabilities in the UK: Cross Sectional Study

BackgroundUniversal childhood vaccination programmes form a core component of child health policies in most countries, including the UK. Achieving high coverage rates of vaccines is critical for establishing ‘herd immunity’ and preventing disease outbreaks. Evidence from the UK has identified several groups of children who are at risk of not being fully immunised. Our aim was to determine whether children with intellectual disabilities constitute one such group.MethodsSecondary analysis of parental report data on child vaccination collected in the UK’s Millennium Cohort Study when the children were 9 months, 3 years, 5 years and 14 years old.ResultsWith one exception (MMR coverage at age 5) vaccination coverage rates were lower for children with intellectual disabilities (when compared to children without intellectual disability) for all vaccinations at all ages. Complete coverage rates were significantly lower for children with intellectual disabilities at ages 9 months (unadjusted PRR non-vaccination = 2.03 (1.14–3.60), p < 0.05) and 3 years (unadjusted PRR = 2.16 (1.06–4.43), p < 0.05), but not at age 5 years (unadjusted PRR = 1.91 (0.67–5.49)). HPV vaccination was lower (but not significantly so) at age 14 (PRR = 1.83 (0.99–3.37), p = 0.054). Adjusting PRRs for between group differences in family socio-economic position and other factors associated with coverage reduced the strength of association between intellectual disability and coverage at all ages. However, incomplete vaccination remained significantly elevated for children with intellectual disabilities at ages 9 months and 3 years. There were no statistically significant differences between parents of children with/without intellectual disability regarding the reasons given for non-vaccination.ConclusionsChildren with intellectual disabilities in the UK are at increased risk of vaccine preventable diseases. This may jeopardise their own health, the health of younger siblings and may also compromise herd immunity.

Residential neighborhood greenery and children's cognitive development

Children who grow up in neighborhoods with more green vegetation show enhanced cognitive development in specific domains over short timespans. However, it is unknown if neighborhood greenery per se is uniquely predictive of children's overall cognitive development measured across many years. The E-Risk Longitudinal Study, a nationally representative 1994-5 birth-cohort of children in Britain (n = 1658 urban and suburban-dwelling participants), was used to test whether residential neighborhood greenery uniquely predicts children's cognitive development across childhood and adolescence. Greenery exposure was assessed from ages 5 to 18 using the satellite imagery-based normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) in 1-mile buffers around the home. Fluid and crystalized intellectual performance was assessed in the home at ages 5, 12, and 18 using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale, and executive function, working memory, and attention ability were assessed in the home at age 18 using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Children living in residences surrounded by more neighborhood greenery scored significantly higher, on average, on IQ measures at all ages. However, the association between greenery and cognitive measures did not hold after accounting for family or neighborhood socioeconomic status. After adjustment for study covariates, child greenery exposure was not a significant predictor of longitudinal increases in IQ across childhood and adolescence or of executive function, working memory, or attention ability at age 18. Children raised in greener neighborhoods exhibit better overall cognitive ability, but the association is likely accounted for by family and neighborhood socioeconomic factors.

Influence of Family Socio-Economic Factors on Prevention of Premarital Sexual Behavior in Jember Regency

Background: the incidence of premarital sexual behavior by adolescents in the world has increased, so that adolescents need attention, guidance, supervision from parents, and good service planning related to reproductive health problems, so that teens will avoid risky behaviors namely premarital sexual behavior.Method: The cross-sectional study design was conducted on 229 adolescents aged 16-17 years with multistage random sampling. Questionnaires were used to measure family socioeconomic factors and prevention of premarital sexual behavior using theory and have been modified by researchers. The family socioeconomic factor variables include indicators of education, income, employment and number of family members and the variables for preventing premarital sexual behavior include refusing skills, increasing religiosity, avoiding pornographic media, promoting sexual health and enhancing parent-teen relations.Data analysis: using SEM using software (Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) version 21). Results: The effect of family socioeconomic factors on the prevention of premarital sexual behavior with a P-value of 0.849 indicates that family socio- economic factors do not significantly influence premarital sexual prevention by adolescents.Conclusion: Family factors in this case are family socio-economic factors that have no effect on premarital sexual prevention in adolescents, this can be caused by the influence of individual adolescents' attitudes and the efforts of adolescents themselves to increase their religiosity and understanding of sexual behavior healthy and responsible who ultimately can make the right decisions and be responsible for their sexual lives and have the ability to resist premarital sexual behavior.

Perceived impact of contextual determinants on depression, anxiety and stress: a survey with university students

BackgroundYoung adults starting college or university education encounter multiple stressors related to transitional life-stage and novel environments. Current studies reveal high rates of symptoms related to common mental health problems like depression, anxiety and stress. However, limited knowledge exists on the determinants on these problems among Canadian students. The primary aim of the study was to investigate the impact of contextual determinants, as perceived by students, on self-reported mental health, and how these impacts varied by depression, anxiety and stress.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was conducted with students attending a large university in Toronto, Canada. Participants completed a self-administered online questionnaire as part of a larger project. The questions asked about contextual determinants related to personal, interpersonal, family, social, socio-economic and political factors along with levels of depression, anxiety and stress as measured by Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Beck Anxiety Inventory and Perceived Stress Scale.ResultsA total of 148 students completed the questionnaire (37 males and 111 females) with an age range of 19–54 years (median 22, IQR 21–24.8). English was reported as first language by 62.8% while 34.5% self-identified as white and 58.1% reported being born in Canada. Overall, 39.5% reported symptoms of moderate to severe depression, 23.8% reported moderate–severe anxiety and 80.3% reported moderate–severe levels of perceived stress, with no significant differences between males and females. In the final multivariate analysis, variables significantly associated with depression were grade-point-average (aOR 2.46, 95% CI 1.017–5.97), family factors (aOR 3.46, 95% CI 1.50–7.94), social factors (aOR 3.24, 1.30–8.1), self-rated health (aOR 0.34, 95% CI 0.14–0.82) and political factors (aOR 0.40, 95% CI 0.16–0.97). Anxiety was significantly associated with family factors (aOR 2.79, 1.09–7.18), socioeconomic factors (aOR 2.59, 95% CI 1.05–6.42) and age (aOR 0.33, 95% CI 0.11–0.98). The significant factors for stress were grade-point-average (aOR 2.41, 1.01–5.75) and social factors (aOR 3.87, 95% CI 1.59–9.43).ConclusionThe study found strong to moderate impact of several determinants on depression, anxiety and stress. The results suggest a need to address a variety of factors affecting students’ mental health.Trial registration Parent trial: http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN92827275

Polyvictimization, Related Symptoms, and Familial and Neighborhood Contexts as Longitudinal Mediators of Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Violence Exposure Across Adolescence.

African American and Hispanic adolescent experience more violence exposure relative to White youth. The present study examined the mediating role of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), delinquency, earlier victimization, and familial and neighborhood factors in disparities in future victimization. The study utilized data from the National Survey of Adolescents-Replication (N = 3,312), which consists of three waves of data collected approximately 1year apart. A series of path models, tested polyvictimization, PTSS, delinquency, familial socioeconomic factors, and neighborhood safety as mediators of disparities in new polyvictimization. All cross-lagged and autoregressive paths positively predicted past-year polyvictimization and mediated longitudinal disparities. Familial socioeconomic variables and neighborhood safety mediated initial violence exposure disparities. Overall, results indicate that prior violence exposure, related mental health symptoms, and familial and neighborhood factors account for significant portions of disparities in new violence exposure across adolescence.

The impact of family socioeconomic factors on child safety

The impact of family socioeconomic factors on child safety

Is familial risk for depression confounded by individual and familial socioeconomic factors and neighborhood environmental factors? A 7-year follow-up study in Sweden

Family history of depression is an important risk factor for depression. The aim of this study was to examine whether the effect of family history of depression is confounded by individual and familial socioeconomic factors (i.e., country of origin, educational attainment, family income and mobility) and neighborhood environmental factors (i.e., neighborhood deprivation and neighborhood social capital). The study population comprised 188,907 individuals aged 20–44 years from a nationwide sample of primary care centers in Sweden. Among these individuals, 22,014 with a first event of depression (6,486 men and 15,528 women) were identified during the 7-year follow-up period. Family history of depression was defined as depression in at least one parent. Cross-classified multilevel logistic regression models were used to calculate odds ratios with 95% credible intervals. Increased familial odds were observed after adjustment for individual and familial socioeconomic factors and neighborhood environmental factors for both men and women. Our results suggest that family history of depression is an independent risk factor for depression. Offspring of parents with depression are important targets for disease prevention, regardless of individual and familial socioeconomic factors and neighborhood environmental factors.

Night sleep duration trajectories and associated factors among preschool children from the EDEN cohort

ObjectiveSleep duration may vary both interindividually and intraindividually over time. We aimed to identify night-sleep duration (NSD) trajectories among preschoolers and to study associated factors. MethodsNSD was collected within the French birth-cohort study EDEN at ages 2, 3, and 5–6 years through parental questionnaires, and were used to model NSD trajectories among 1205 children. Familial socioeconomic factors, maternal sociodemographic, health and lifestyle characteristics, as well as child health, lifestyle, and sleep characteristics at birth and/or at age two years were investigated in association with NSD using multinomial logistic regressions. ResultsFive distinct NSD trajectories were identified: short (SS, <10 h, 4.9%), medium-low (MLS, <11 h, 47.8%), medium–high (MHS, ≈11.5 h, 37.2%), long (LS, ≥11.5 h, 4.5%) and changing (CS, ie, ≥11.5 h then <11 h, 5.6%) NSD trajectories. Multivariable analyses showed in particular that compared to the MHS trajectory factors associated with increased risk for the SS trajectory were male gender, first child, maternal age and working status, night-waking, parental presence when falling asleep, television-viewing duration, as well as both “Processed and fast foods” and the “Baby food” dietary patterns at age two years. Factors positively associated with the CS trajectory were maternal smoking, feeding at night, and the Processed and fast foods dietary pattern at age two years, whereas child's activity and emotionality scores at age one year were negatively associated. ConclusionWe identified distinct NSD trajectories among preschoolers and associated early life factors. Some of them may reflect less healthy lifestyles, providing cues for early multi-behavioral prevention interventions.

Modelling age specific fertility rate in India through fertility curves

One of the important demographic features of any population is the fertility rate which has a direct relationship with both the social and the biological environment. Demographic factors like age at marriage, present family size, gender preference (Mahadevan [27], Bhasin [3], Asari and John [2], Chachra and Bhasin [18], Bhasin and Nag [19]) and socio economic factors like education, occupation, religion, contraceptive practice, etc. (Bhatia [20], Asari and John [2]) are the determinants of desired family size and all these are considered as the cause of the variation of fertility. So far researchers have proposed a variety of reproductivity measures and mathematical models to describe the reproductivity pattern of human population (Islam and Ali [21], Peristera and Kostaki [22] and Nasir et al. [23]). The objective of this study is to examine the current pattern of Age Specific Fertility Rate(ASFR) and to study the trend in fertile age groups by fitting non linear models to the ASFR data for all the states in India obtained from the sample registration system [1], of India. Cross Validity Prediction Power (CVPP), Shrinkage, and R2 are used to identify the best model for the states. Model identification for Forward Age Specific Fertility Rate (FASFR) and Backward Age Specific Fertility Rate (BASFR) along with validity measures are also presented in this paper.

Perceived stress is associated with smaller hippocampal volume in adolescence.

Perceived stress has been associated with decreased hippocampal, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex volume, as well as decreased memory and executive functioning performance in adulthood. Parents' perceived stress has been linked to decreased hippocampal volume in young children. However, no studies have investigated the links between self-perceived stress and brain structure or function in adolescents. Additionally, findings from previous research with younger or older samples are inconsistent, likely in part due to inconsistencies in participants' age range. In this study, we investigated the associations among self-perceived stress, family socioeconomic factors (family income, parental education), subcortical (hippocampus, amygdala) volumes, prefrontal cortical thickness and surface area, and memory and executive functioning performance in adolescents. One hundred and forty-three participants (12-20 years old) were administered a cognitive battery, a questionnaire to assess perceived stress, and a structural MRI scan. Higher levels of perceived stress were associated with decreased adolescent hippocampal volume. This study provides empirical evidence of how experience may shape brain development in adolescence-a period of plasticity during which it may be possible to intervene and prevent negative developmental outcomes.

The Geography of Racial/Ethnic Test Score Gaps

We estimate racial/ethnic achievement gaps in several hundred metropolitan areas and several thousand school districts in the United States using the results of roughly 200 million standardized math and reading tests administered to public school students from 2009-2013. We show that achievement gaps vary substantially, ranging from nearly 0 in some places to larger than 1.2 standard deviations in others. Economic, demographic, segregation and schooling characteristics explain roughly three-quarters of the geographic variation in these gaps. The strongest correlates of achievement gaps are local racial/ethnic differences in parental income, local average parental education levels, and patterns of racial/ethnic segregation, consistent with a theoretical model in which family socioeconomic factors affect educational opportunity partly though residential and school segregation patterns.