Family Rhabdoviridae Research Articles

Unravelling the Current Status of Rice Stripe Mosaic Virus: Its Geographical Spread, Biology, Epidemiology, and Management

Rice stripe mosaic virus (RSMV) belongs to the Cytorhabdovirus species in the Rhabdoviridae family. Recently, RSMV was widely spread in East Asia and caused severe yield losses. RSMV is transmitted by the planthopper vectors, Recilia dorsalis, Nephotettix virescens, and Nilaparvata lugens, that mostly affect rice. The adult vectors can hibernate, transmit the virus, lay eggs on rice plants, and, finally, multiply in subsequent generations, resulting in new infection outbreaks. RSMV-infected rice varieties display striped mosaicism, mild dwarfism, stiff and twisted leaves, delayed heading, short panicles with large unfilled grains, and yield reduction. In nature, the infection of multiple pathogens in the same host is widespread, which is defined as co-infection. It can be antagonistic or synergistic. Pathological synergistic effects between RSMV and other viruses can generate strains with new genetic characteristics, leading to unpredictable epidemiological consequences. After the first identification of RSMV in 2015, significant advancements in understanding the disease’s characteristics, symptoms, cycles, geographic distribution, potential vectors, and synergistic interaction, as well as its management strategies, were developed. To reduce the damage due to RSMV infection, many scientists have recommended pest control techniques to target adult vectors. It is also essential to confirm the actual time of monitoring, development of resistant varieties, and changes in cultivation systems. Due to the limitations of the conventional plant disease control technologies, improvements in efficiency and safety are in high demand. Therefore, to find efficient and environmentally safe controls to mitigate these challenges, reviews of research are the foremost step. In this review, we summarize the basic epidemiological information about the origin of RSMV and its infection symptoms in the field, synergistic interaction with viruses during co-transmission, yield losses, formulation of the disease cycle, and control strategies from several case studies. Finally, we recommend the formulation of the disease cycle and management strategies of RSMV infection.

The Current Epizootiological Situation of Three Major Viral Infections Affecting Cattle in Egypt.

One of the major factors hindering efficient livestock production is the presence of high-impact infectious animal diseases, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), lumpy skin disease (LSD), and bovine ephemeral fever (BEF), which are notable viral infections affecting cattle in Egypt, leading to significant economic losses. FMD is caused by the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) of the genus Aphthovirus in the Picornaviridae family. LSD is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) of Capripox genus within the Poxviridae family, subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. BEF is caused by bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) of genus Ephemerovirus in the Rhabdoviridae family. FMD is a highly contagious viral infection of domestic and wild cloven-hooved animals and can spread through the wind. On the other hand, LSD and BEF are arthropod-borne viral diseases that mainly affect domestic cattle and water buffalo. Despite government vaccination efforts, these three viral diseases have become widespread in Egypt, with several reported epidemics. Egypt's importation of large numbers of animals from different countries, combined with unregulated animal movements through trading and borders between African countries and Egypt, facilitates the introduction of new FMDV serotypes and lineages not covered by the current vaccination plans. To establish an effective control program, countries need to assess the real epizootic situation of various infectious animal diseases to develop an efficient early warning system. This review provides information about FMD, LSD, and BEF, including their economic impacts, causative viruses, global burden, the situation in Egypt, and the challenges in controlling these diseases.

Genomes of Alphanucleorhabdovirus Physostegiae Isolates from Two Different Cultivar Groups of Solanum melongena

Plant rhabdoviruses cause considerable economic losses and are a threat to the agriculture of Solanaceae plants. Two novel virus isolates belonging to the family Rhabdoviridae are identified by high-throughput sequencing (HTS) in Russian eggplant cultivars grown in the Volga river delta region for the first time. The phylogenetic inference of L protein (polymerase) shows that these virus isolates belong to Alphanucleorhabdovirus physostegia (Physostegia chlorotic mottle virus—PhCMoV), and their minus-sense RNA genomes have the typical gene order 3′-nucleocapsid (N)—X protein (X)—phosphoprotein (P)—Y protein (Y)—matrix protein (M)—glycoprotein (G)—polymerase (L)-5′ observed in some plant-infecting alphanucleorhabdoviruses. One of the PhCMoV isolates from the eggplant cultivar Almaz is genetically very similar to the Russian PhCMoV isolate from tomato and grouped in a subclade together with four isolates from Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and France. However, another eggplant-infecting isolate from the Russian cultivar Boggart is the most divergent compared with the other 45 virus genomes of European PhCMoV isolates. Thus, our comparative analysis reveals that two virus isolates from Russia may either share a close evolutionary relationship with European isolates or significantly diverge from all known virus isolates. The potential to use the protein sequence comparative analysis of accessory polypeptides, along with the early developed strategy of the nucleotide sequence comparison of the RNA genomes, is shown.

Rabies situation in the Moscow Oblast in 2011–2023 and the role of oral vaccination of wild carnivores against rabies

Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease of all warm-blooded animals caused by a neurotropic virus, member of the Lyssavirus genus of the Rhabdoviridae family. About 59,000 people die from hydrophobia globally every year. According to the World Health Organization, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the common raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) are the main reservoirs and vectors among carnivores of the rabies virus in Europe. The paper describes animal rabies situation in 2011–2023 and the role of oral vaccination of wild carnivores against rabies in the Moscow Oblast. The region is a part of the Central Federal District and located in the center of the Russian plain bordering seven Oblasts (Tver, Smolensk, Kaluga, Tula, Ryazan, Vladimir and Yaroslavl Oblasts), which are also rabies infected. Notwithstanding the metropolis growth, the number of wild carnivores in the Moscow Oblast remains high. Comprehensive preventive measures to control the population of the wild carnivores are taken to stabilize the rabies situation and decrease the incidence, innovative achievements in laboratory diagnosis are introduced, population immunity of wild carnivores by oral vaccination is improved and the epidemic situation in neighboring regions is analyzed. In 2017 the systemic, consistent and thoroughly organized campaign was started – the oral vaccines were distributed by light aircrafts. The research revealed the correlation between the decrease in annual number of reported rabies cases and increase in the amounts of oral vaccines distributed. The use of controlling devices (camera traps) confirmed that oral rabies vaccines are consumed by the target animals (red foxes). The onward systemic, methodical approach to rabies prevention will mitigate the risks of rabies occurrence in the Moscow Oblast.

Discovery and Genomic Analysis of Three Novel Viruses in the Order Mononegavirales in Leafhoppers.

Leafhoppers are economically important pests and may serve as vectors for pathogenic viruses that cause substantial crop damage. In this study, using deep transcriptome sequencing, we identified three novel viruses within the order Mononegavirales, including two viruses belonging to the family Rhabdoviridae and one to the family Lispiviridae. The complete genome sequences were obtained via the rapid amplification of cDNA ends and tentatively named Recilia dorsalis rhabdovirus 1 (RdRV1, 14,251 nucleotides, nt), Nephotettix virescens rhabdovirus 1 (NvRV1, 13,726 nt), and Nephotettix virescens lispivirus 1 (NvLV1, 14,055 nt). The results of a phylogenetic analysis and sequence identity comparison suggest that RdRV1 and NvRV1 represent novel species within the family Rhabdoviridae, while NvLV1 is a new virus belonging to the family Lispiviridae. As negative-sense single-strand RNA viruses, RdRV1 and NvRV1 contain the conserved transcription termination signal and intergenic trinucleotides in the non-transcribed region. Intergenomic sequence and transcriptome profile analyses suggested that all these genes were co-transcriptionally expressed in these viral genomes, facilitated by specific intergenic trinucleotides and putative transcription initiation sequences.

Development of two competitive ELISAs based on monoclonal antibodies for the serological detection of Bovine ephemeral fever virus

Bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) is a member of the genus Ephemerovirus in the family Rhabdoviridae. It is an arthropod-borne virus transmitted by many species of midges and mosquitoes. It can cause severe economic consequences due to losses in milk production and the general condition of cattle and water buffalo. BEF occurs in some tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of Africa, Australia, the Middle East and Asia with seasonal outbreaks, but its possible spread to other areas (e.g. Europe) cannot be excluded. Therefore, using and developing rapid diagnostic methods with optimal performance is essential for identifying emerging pathogens and their control. In the present study, we developed two competitive serological ELISAs based on monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), designed by using BEFV inactivated antigen and the BEF recombinant nucleoprotein (N), respectively. A panel of 77 BEF-positive and 338 BEF-negative sera was used to evaluate the two tests. With a diagnostic sensitivity of 97.4 % using the inactivated virus and 98.7 % using the recombinant N, and a diagnostic specificity of 100 % using both antigens, our results suggest that these tests are suitable for the serological diagnosis of BEF.

Widespread human exposure to ledanteviruses in Uganda: A population study.

Le Dantec virus (LDV), assigned to the species Ledantevirus ledantec, genus Ledantevirus, family Rhabdoviridae has been associated with human disease but has gone undetected since the 1970s. We describe the detection of LDV in a human case of undifferentiated fever in Uganda by metagenomic sequencing and demonstrate a serological response using ELISA and pseudotype neutralisation. By screening 997 individuals sampled in 2016, we show frequent exposure to ledanteviruses with 76% of individuals seropositive in Western Uganda, but lower seroprevalence in other areas. Serological cross-reactivity as measured by pseudotype-based neutralisation was confined to ledanteviruses, indicating population seropositivity may represent either exposure to LDV or related ledanteviruses. We also describe the discovery of a closely related ledantevirus in blood from the synanthropic rodent Mastomys erythroleucus. Ledantevirus infection is common in Uganda but is geographically heterogenous. Further surveys of patients presenting with acute fever are required to determine the contribution of these emerging viruses to febrile illness in Uganda.

Handling Bovine Ephemeral Fever (BEF) in Semanu District, Gunung Kidul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Bovine Ephemeral Fever (BEF) is one of the most common diseases affecting cattle caused by single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses sense negative, belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Ephemerovirus which are transmitted through vectors such as Cullicoids spp. BEF has a high morbidity rate and low mortality of around 2-5%. The cow belonging to Mr. Sayadi whose address is Nitikan Timur, Semanu, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta, a 3 year old male Limousin type with a body weight of 400 kg and a BCS of 3/5, experienced decreased appetite, hypersalivation, weakness and the results of the physical examination showed a high body temperature, namely 39.5OC, respiratory frequency 40x/minute, pulse frequency 60x/minute. Based on the results of the anamnesis, physical examination and clinical symptoms, the cow was diagnosed Bovine Ephemeral Fever (BEF) with fausta prognosis. The therapy given is an injection of the antihistamine Vetadryl®1 to overcome inflammation and Vitamin B Sanplex®2 as intramuscular supportive therapy.

DOG DEMOGRAPHY IN RABIES CONTROL EFFORTS IN BANJAR SIBANG AND BANJAR BRAHMANA, SANGEH VILLAGE, BADUNG BALI

Rabies is a zoonotic disease caused by a neurotropic virus of the genus Lyssavirus in the family Rhabdoviridae. A rabies case was detected in Bali in November 2008 in Badung Regency. This study aimed to determine the demographic characteristics of Banjar Sibang and Brahmana of Sangeh Village, Abiansemal Subdistrict, Badung Regency, Bali in an effort to control rabies. This study used an observational study design, by collecting data on dog demographics including: population, sex, breed, age, husbandry system, Body Condition Score (BCS) and vaccination coverage. The method used was a survey by interviewing a total of 27 households of dog owners in Banjar Sibang and 43 households in Banjar Brahmana. Data collection was conducted by census (door to door) by interviewing dog-owning households using questionnaires, and direct observation of unowned dogs. From the research, the following results were obtained as of January 2024: the ratio of humans to dogs in Banjar Sibang is 11.8:1 and in Banjar Brahmana 10.3:1. The dog rearing system in both banjars is mostly done by releasing with a percentage of 78.8% in Banjar Sibang and 87.5% in Banjar Brahmana. Vaccination coverage in each banjar reached 100% and 85%, respectively. In conclusion, based on population data, the ratio of people to dogs in the study area to FAO standards is not ideal or in a rabies-prone condition with a ratio below 16:1. Although vaccination coverage in both districts exceeded WHO standards, it is necessary to continue expanding rabies vaccination programs, especially in areas with high dog-to-population ratios. Mass sterilization programs and more attention to husbandry systems are recommended to control dog populations and the spread of rabies.

Genomic characterization of a novel Hepatovirus identified in Maranhão state, Brazil

Bats are efficient reservoirs of a number of viruses with zoonotic potential, and are involved directly in the transmission cycle of many zoonoses. In the present study, which is part of a larger project that is documenting the viromes of the bat species found in the Mid-North states of Maranhão and Piauí, we analyzed 16 pooled samples obtained from four species of bat of the genus Artibeus—Artibeus obscurus, Artibeus cinereus, Artibeus lituratus and Artibeus planirostris. We describe and identify a Hepatovirus, denominated Hepatovirus H isolate sotense, which was found in a pool of internal organs (liver and lungs) extracted from a specimen of A. planirostris, a frugivorous bat, collected in the Cerrado biome of Maranhão state. This material was analyzed using new generation sequencing, which produced a contig of 7390 nucleotides and presented a degree of identity with a number of existing Hepatovirus sequences available for bats (amino acid identity of 61.5% with Bat hepatovirus C of Miniopterus cf. manavi, 66.6% with Bat hepatovirus G of Coleura afra, 67.4% with Hepatovirus G2 of Rhinolophus landeri, and 75.3% with Hepatovirus H2 of Rhinolophus landeri). The analysis of the functional domains of this contig confirmed a pattern consistent with the characteristics of the genus Hepatovirus (Picornaviridae). In the phylogenetic tree with several other Hepatovirus species, this genome also grouped in a monophyletic clade with Hepatovirus H (HepV-H1; HepV-H2, and HepV-H3) albeit on an external branch, which suggests that it may be a distinct genotype within this species. This is the first isolate of Hepatovirus H identified in bats from South America, and represents an important discovery, given that most studies of viruses associated with bats in the state of Maranhão have focused on the family Rhabdoviridae.

Brief Overview on Rabies: A Fatal and Preventable Virus

Rabies is a fatal and acute infection of the brain. The virulence factor of this infection is the Rabies virus, which belongs to the Rhabdoviridae family. It is a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted from animals to humans. The common ways of transferral of Rabies in humans are the transmission of rabies by the bite of a rabid animal and transmission due to saliva and consumption of meat and milk of rabid animals. Some wild animals, e.g., skunks, dogs, raccoons, foxes, and bats, can also transfer rabies in humans, mammals, and other animals. The incubation period of Rabies is at least 2 weeks to a maximum of 6 years, with an average duration of 2 to 3 months. Given its status as a significant zoonotic disease, it is crucial to have an accurate and prompt diagnosis to facilitate early treatment and implement effective measures for prevention and control. This study comprehensively analyzes epidemiology, transmission, etiology, advancements in diagnostics, immunization, therapy methods, and effective prevention and control techniques. The main objective of this study is to brief the threat of rabies and its management along with providing some brief knowledge related to rabies. The web sources (e.g., Google Scholar, Pubmed) were used to collect data regarding Rabies and briefly explained. As a result, it is clear that rabies is a big threat to the whole world so management strategies are required to target and overcome this threat. This study concludes that the Rabies virus can be managed by following the preventive and managemental strategies.

Rhabdoviral Endogenous Sequences Identified in the Leishmaniasis Vector Lutzomyia longipalpis Are Widespread in Sandflies from South America.

Sandflies are known vectors of leishmaniasis. In the Old World, sandflies are also vectors of viruses while little is known about the capacity of New World insects to transmit viruses to humans. Here, we relate the identification of RNA sequences with homology to rhabdovirus nucleocapsids (NcPs) genes, initially in the Lutzomyia longipalpis LL5 cell lineage, named NcP1.1 and NcP2. The Rhabdoviridae family never retrotranscribes its RNA genome to DNA. The sequences here described were identified in cDNA and DNA from LL-5 cells and in adult insects indicating that they are transcribed endogenous viral elements (EVEs). The presence of NcP1.1 and NcP2 in the L. longipalpis genome was confirmed in silico. In addition to showing the genomic location of NcP1.1 and NcP2, we identified another rhabdoviral insertion named NcP1.2. Analysis of small RNA molecules derived from these sequences showed that NcP1.1 and NcP1.2 present a profile consistent with elements targeted by primary piRNAs, while NcP2 was restricted to the degradation profile. The presence of NcP1.1 and NcP2 was investigated in sandfly populations from South America and the Old World. These EVEs are shared by different sandfly populations in South America while none of the Old World species studied presented the insertions.

Two Novel Betarhabdovirins Infecting Ornamental Plants and the Peculiar Intracellular Behavior of the Cytorhabdovirus in the Liana Aristolochia gibertii.

Two novel members of the subfamily Betarhabdovirinae, family Rhabdoviridae, were identified in Brazil. Overall, their genomes have the typical organization 3'-N-P-P3-M-G-L-5' observed in mono-segmented plant-infecting rhabdoviruses. In aristolochia-associated cytorhabdovirus (AaCV), found in the liana aristolochia (Aristolochia gibertii Hook), an additional short orphan ORF encoding a transmembrane helix was detected between P3 and M. The AaCV genome and inferred encoded proteins share the highest identity values, consistently < 60%, with their counterparts of the yerba mate chlorosis-associated virus (Cytorhabdovirus flaviyerbamate). The second virus, false jalap virus (FaJV), was detected in the herbaceous plant false jalap (Mirabilis jalapa L.) and represents together with tomato betanucleorhabdovirus 2, originally found in tomato plants in Slovenia, a tentative new species of the genus Betanucleorhabdovirus. FaJV particles accumulate in the perinuclear space, and electron-lucent viroplasms were observed in the nuclei of the infected cells. Notably, distinct from typical rhabdoviruses, most virions of AaCV were observed to be non-enclosed within membrane-bounded cavities. Instead, they were frequently seen in close association with surfaces of mitochondria or peroxisomes. Unlike FaJV, AaCV was successfully graft-transmitted to healthy plants of three species of the genus Aristolochia, while mechanical and seed transmission proved unsuccessful for both viruses. Data suggest that these viruses belong to two new tentative species within the subfamily Betarhabdovirinae.

Genomic characterization of a novel cytorhabdovirus infecting Ixeris denticulata in China.

Ixeris denticulata is a perennial herbal plant with important medical and economic value. In this study, a novel rhabdovirus from I. denticulata with leaf curling and mottle symptoms was identified through next-generation sequencing and molecular cloning approaches. Based on the host species and properties of this virus, it was tentatively named "Ixeris denticulata-associated rhabdovirus" (IdaRV). IdaRV has a negative-sense RNA genome that is 12,705 nucleotides in length and has five open reading frames (ORFs) in the order 3'-nucleoprotein -phosphoprotein -movement protein -matrix protein -large RNA-dependent RNA polymerase-5'. Pairwise sequence comparisons showed that IdaRV had 42.2-53.0% sequence identity to members of the genera Cytorhabdovirus, Varicosavirus, Betanucleorhabdovirus, Gammanucleorhabdovirus, Dichorhavirus, and Alphanucleorhabdovirus in the subfamily Betarhabdovirinae. BLASTp searches indicated that putative products of ORF1, ORF2, ORF3, ORF4, and ORF5 of IdaRV are most closely related to those of rudbeckia virus 1 (RudV1, GenBank accession number ON185810), with 32.1%, 21.3%, 52.4%, 37.6%, and 57.1% amino acid sequence identity, respectively, at the protein level. Phylogenetic analysis showed that IdaRV forms a smaller branch with RudV1, which belongs to the genus Cytorhabdovirus. These results establish IdaRV as a novel rhabdovirus in the genus Cytorhabdovirus of the family Rhabdoviridae.

COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE TO RABIESIN IN THE BANJAR PEKANDELAN, BEDULU VILLAGE, BLAHBATUH DISTRICT, GIANYAR REGENCY

Rabies is known as Lyssa, hygrophobia or also mad dog disease which is caused by a virus from the genus Lyssavirus, family Rhabdoviridae which is acute and attacks the central nervous system. Rabies eradication does not only depend on the problem of dogs or other rabies-transmitting animals, but also involves human problems. This study aims to determine the knowledge and attitudes of the community about Rabies Disease in Banjar Pekandelan, Bedulu Village, Blahbatuh District, Gianyar Regency, Bali. There are 64 household heads in Banjar Pekandelan and 13 families who keep dogs. The design of this research is observational. The number of respondents in this study were all families who kept dogs in Banjar Pekandelan. Research data collection was carried out by interviewing the dog owner's family using a questionnaire. The data obtained from interviews regarding the knowledge and attitude aspects of the dog keeping community were tabulated using Ms. Excel, data were analyzed descriptively qualitatively and displayed in table form. From the research results, it was found that the community already ewell understood about rabies. While the attitude of the community is worth, which means that the community has a positive attitude in dealing with rabies in dogs. It can be concluded that the knowledge and attitude of the community in Banjar Pekandelan, Bedulu Village towards rabies is high and positive in dealing with rabies. So that it makes it easier to carry out the prevention and control of rabies there

KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR OF DOG OWNERS TOWARDS RABIES IN BANJAR SELAT TENGAH, SELAT VILLAGE, BANGLI REGENCY

Rabies is a zoonotic disease caused by a neurotropic virus of the genus Lyssavirus in the Rhabdoviridae family. Rabies cases were detected in Bali in November 2008 in Badung Regency and spread gradually in all regencies, one of which was Bangli Regency. The purpose of this study was to determine the level of knowledge, attitudes and behavior of the people in Banjar Selat Tengah. The design of this research is observational. The method used was a survey of respondents, namely all dog-owning households in Banjar Selat Tengah, Selat Village. Based on data obtained from 34 (100%) respondents, namely from Banjar Selat Tengah, that the majority of the population has a good level of knowledge, attitude and behavior. Based on the results of the research that has been done, it shows that the level of knowledge of the people of Banjar Selat Tengah about rabies is good at 94.1%. In addition, the attitude of the Banjar Selat Tengah community can be categorized as a positive attitude of 79.4%. For the level of behavior of the Banjar Selat Tengah community, it is classified as good behavior at 79.4%. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that the number of families who keep dogs from Banjar Selat Tengah is 34 families. The majority of the banjar residents have a good level of knowledge, so does the community's attitude towards rabies which is also in the category of positive attitudes and the community's behavior towards rabies is quite good. It is hoped that the community can improve their knowledge, attitude and behavior towards rabies to help better manage rabies in the future.

COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND BEHAVIOR TOWARDS RABIES IN BANJAR BATUSARI, SANGEH VILLAGE, ABIANSEMAL DISTRICT, BADUNG REGENCY

Rabies is a zoonotic disease caused by the genus Lyssavirus of the Rhabdoviridae family which is very fatal. In Indonesia, rabies has infected 26 of the 34 existing provinces. Bali has tested positive for rabies since 2008. The government and the people of Bali have made efforts to control rabies by carrying out mass rabies vaccinations for dogs, eliminating dogs that are not owned, and conducting education about the dangers of rabies to the public. This study aims to determine the knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of the community towards rabies in Banjar Batusari, Sangeh Village, Abiansemal District, Badung Regency, Bali. Data collection in this study was carried out directly by going to the field to conduct surveys and interviews with the community. The number of heads of families in Banjar Batusari is 153 families. Data obtained from the results of interviews regarding aspects of knowledge, aspects of attitudes, and aspects of the behaviour of the dog keeping community were tabulated using Ms. Excel, the data were analysed descriptively and qualitatively and displayed in the form of tables or graphs. The results showed that 100% of the knowledge of the people in Banjar Batusari had a high level of knowledge. The attitude of the people of Banjar Batusari can be categorized as a 100% positive attitude towards rabies. For the level of behaviour of the Banjar Batusari community, it is classified as good behaviour at 68.8%. Thus, the knowledge, attitude and behaviour of the community is expected to control rabies in the research location so that rabies cases are very small and make it easier to carry out rabies prevention and control there.

Autophagy and Apoptosis in Rabies Virus Replication.

Rabies virus (RABV) is a single-stranded negative-sense RNA virus belonging to the Rhabdoviridae family and Lyssavirus genus, which is highly neurotropic and can infect almost all warm-blooded animals, including humans. Autophagy and apoptosis are two evolutionarily conserved and genetically regulated processes that maintain cellular and organismal homeostasis, respectively. Autophagy recycles unnecessary or dysfunctional intracellular organelles and molecules in a cell, whereas apoptosis eliminates damaged or unwanted cells in an organism. Studies have shown that RABV can induce both autophagy and apoptosis in target cells. To advance our understanding of pathogenesis of rabies, this paper reviews the molecular mechanisms of autophagy and apoptosis induced by RABV and the effects of the two cellular events on RABV replication.

Transcriptome analysis of long non-coding RNA and mRNA Profiles in VSV-infected BHK-21 Cells

BackgroundVesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) is a typical non-segmented negative-sense RNA virus of the genus Vesiculovirus in the family Rhabdoviridae. VSV can infect a wide range of animals, including humans, with oral blister epithelial lesions. VSV is an excellent model virus with a wide range of applications as a molecular tool, a vaccine vector, and an oncolytic vector. To further understand the interaction between VSV and host cells and to provide a theoretical basis for the application prospects of VSV, we analyzed the expression of host differentially expressed genes (DEGs) during VSV infection using RNA-Seq.ResultsOur analyses found a total of 1015 differentially expressed mRNAs and 161 differentially expressed LncRNAs in BHK-21 cells infected with VSV for 24 h compared with controls. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment showed that the differentially expressed lncRNAs and their target genes were mainly concentrated in pathways related to apoptosis, cancer, disease, and immune system activation, including the TNF, P53, MAPK, and NF-kappaB signaling pathways. The differentially expressed lncRNA can modulate immune processes by regulating genes involved in these signaling transmissions. Ten randomly selected DEGs, namely, Il12rb2, F2, Masp2, Mcl1, FGF18, Ripk1, Fas, BMF, POLK, and JAG1, were validated using RT-qPCR. As predicted through RNA-Seq analysis, these DEGs underwent either up- or downregulation, suggesting that they may play key regulatory roles in the pathways mentioned previously.ConclusionsOur study showed that VSV infection alters the host metabolic network and activates immune-related pathways, such as MAPK and TNF. The above findings provide unique insights for further study of the mechanism of VSV–host interactions and, more importantly, provide a theoretical basis for VSV as an excellent vaccine carrier.

Identification of a novel ephemerovirus in a water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis [Linnaeus, 1758]).

Ephemeroviruses, belonging to the genus Ephemerovirus within the family Rhabdoviridae of the Mononegavirales, are non-segmented, negative-strand RNA viruses that infect artiodactyls and blood-sucking arthropods. Although recent advances in sequencing technology have facilitated the identification of novel ephemeroviruses, thereby expanding our understanding of this viral genus, their diversity remains elusive, as evidenced by phylogenetic gaps between currently known ephemeroviruses. In this study, we analyzed publicly available RNA-seq data and identified a novel ephemerovirus, tentatively named Punjab virus (PBV), in a water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis [Linnaeus, 1758]). We obtained two separate PBV contigs from the RNA-seq data; the first contig covers the N, P, and M genes, while the second contig covers the G, α, β, γ, and L genes. Together, these PBV contigs represent 99% of the estimated complete viral genome. Mapping analysis revealed a typical transcriptional gradient pattern commonly observed in mononegaviruses, suggesting that the water buffalo is the authentic host for PBV. Sequence comparisons with its closest relatives indicate that the newly identified virus meets the ICTV species demarcation criteria for sequence divergence. Thus, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the diversity of ephemeroviruses.